Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

ERWIN, DOUGLAS, H.

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00931.xpmid: N/A

Abstract The rapid diversification of early Metazoa remains one of the most puzzling events in the fossil record. Several models have been proposed to explain a critical aspect of this event: the origin of Metazoan development. These include the origin of the eukaryotic cell, environmental triggers, key innovations or selection among cell lineages. Here, the first three hypotheses are evaulated within a phylogenetic framework using fossil, molecular and developmental evidence. Many elements of metazoan development are widely distributed among unicellular eukaryotes, yet only 3 of the 23 multicellular eukaryotic lineages evolved complex development. Molecular evidence indicates the lineage leading to the eukaryotic cell is nearly as old as the eubacterial and archaebacterial lineages, although the symbiotic events established that the eukaryotic cell probably occurred about 1.5 billion years ago. Yet Metazoa did not appear until 1000 to 600 million years ago (Myr), suggesting the origin of metazoan development must be linked to either an environmental trigger, perhaps an increase in atmospheric oxygen, or key innovations such as the development of collagen. Yet the first model fails to explain the unique appearance of complex development in Metazoa, while the latter fails to explain the simultaneous diversification of several ‘protist’ groups along with the Metazoa. A more complete model of the origin of metazoan development combines environmental triggering of a series of innovations, with successive innovations generating radiations of metazoan clades as lineages breached functional thresholds. The elaboration of new cell classes and the appearance of such developmental innovations as cell sheets may have been of particular importance. Evolutionary biologists often implicitly assume that evolution is a uniformitarian, time-homogeneous process without strong temporal asymmetries in evolutionary mechanisms, rate or context. Yet evolutionary patterns do exhibit such asymmetries, raising the possibility that such innovations as metazoan development impose non-uniformities of evolutionary process. Origin of Animals, evolution, key innovations, Metazoa REFERENCES Atchley WR , Hall BK. 1991 . A model for development and evolution of complex morphological structures . Biological Review 66 : 101 – 157 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Bengston S , Fedonkin MA, Lipps JH. 1992 . The major biotas of Proterozoic to Early Cambrian multicellular organisms . In: Schopf JW and Klein C. (Eds.), The proterozoic biosphere: a multidisciplinary study : Cambridge : Cambridge Univesity Press , 433 – 435 . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Bengston S , Lipps JH. 1992 . 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BIRKHEAD, T., R.;MØLLER, A., P.

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00933.xpmid: N/A

Abstract The duration of sperm storage by females differs markedly between reptiles (maximum: 2555 d [7 years] and birds (maximum: 117d), with mammals showing both very short (< 1 d) and relatively long periods (maximum: 198 days). The females of many reptiles, probably all birds and some mammals have specialized structures for storing sperm, suggesting that selection for sperm storage has operated on females. Sperm storage, together with delayed implantation and delayed development, separates copulation from fertilization, and hence, copulation from the timing of birth. All three types of separation mechanism occur in mammals. Delayed implantation cannot occur in reptiles and birds because their eggs do not implant, but delayed development occurs in some reptiles. Comparisons among vertebrate classes suggest that sperm storage in the female tract may have an upper limit of a little over 100 days in endotherms: non-hibernating mammals have circumvented this limit by using delayed implantation as an uncoupling mechanism. A long reproductive cycle (up to four years) probably makes sperm storage obligatory for some reptiles. We consider existing hypotheses for prolonged sperm storage and the other reproductive delays, and propose a new hypothesis. Our hypothesis extends Sandell's (1990) hypothesis which states that in mammals delayed implantation has evolved to allow females to time both their copulation and birth seasons optimally. We propose that the other separation mechanisms, namely sperm storage and delayed development, have also evolved for this reason. Sandell suggested that the optimal time for females to copulate is when the opportunities to obtain the best quality male exist, and thus the dislocation of copulation and birth seasons has occurred through sexual selection. We propose that the other two separation mechanisms may also have evolved through sexual selection, in part at least. Of the three separation mechanisms, sperm storage has additional advantages for females in that it also allows them to modify their choice of male after copulation has occurred, through sperm competition. Thus we propose that: (1) all separation mechanisms have evolved when the optimal time for copulation is not compatible with either the optimal time for fertilization (birds) or the optimal time for birth, given a constant gestation period (reptiles, birds and mammals); (2) separation mechanisms have evolved through sexual selection enabling females to improve the quality of the male that fertilizes their eggs, either through pre-copulatory male-male competition (via any of the separation mechanisms) or through post-copulatory sperm competition (via sperm storage). Reproductive cycles, sperm competition, reproductive delays REFERENCES Adams CS , Cooper WE. 1988 . Oviductal morphology and sperm storage in the keeled earless lizard . Holbrookia propinqw. Herpetologica 44 : 190 – 197 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Allen WB. 1955 . Some notes on reptiles . Herpetologica 11 : 228 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Astheimer LB , Prince PA, Grau GR. 1985 . 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BROWN, RICHARD, P.;THORPE, R., S.;BÁEZ,, M.

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00934.xpmid: N/A

Abstract Recent stuthes indicate that differential selection between mesic and xeric habitats is the most plausible explanation of within-island geographic variation in the Gran Ganarian skink, Chalcides sexlineatus. The island of Tenerife shows mesic/xeric heterogeneity similar to that on Gran Canaria, so we tested the prediction of parallel geographic patterns of morphological population differentiation in the Tenerife skink, Chalcides viridanus. Geographic variation was found to be complex; patterns of differentiation in body dimensions and scalation show evidence of both mosaic and latitudinal facets. Using randomization and regression methods, significant relationships were found between a hypothesized xeric/mesic model of population differentiation and geographic variation in female body dimensions, as well as with substantial proportions of the geographic variation in male and female scalation and, to a lesser extent, body dimensions. Matrix comparisons based on the entire morphological distance matrices show that the patterns of variation are not concordant with an alternative hypothesis of historical secondary contact, or with an isolation-by-distance model. It is argued that a substantial component of the geographic variation in body dimensions and scalation of C. viridanus is due to differential selection along an aridity grathent. Body dimensions, Chalcides, cline, ecogenesis, geographic variation, Mantel tests, microevolution, scalation REFERENCES Abdel-Monem A , Watkins ND, Gast PW. 1971 . Potassium-argon ages, volcanic stratigraphy and geomagnetic polarity history of the Canary Islands: Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canada and La Gomera . American Journal of Science 711 : 490 – 521 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Báez M , Thorpe RS. 1991 . Análisis preliminar de las divergencias entre las poblaciones de Chalcides viridanus en las Islas Canarias . Vieraea 19 : 209 – 213 . 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DUPOUY,, JACQUES;ROUSSEAU,, DItheR;DUSSART,, GEORGES;LIAUD, MARC, VIANEY;NASSI,, HENRI

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00935.xpmid: N/A

Abstract A correspondence analysis of shell measurements taken from 521 widely dispersed specimens of the African aquatic pulmonate snail Biomphalaria pfeifferi suggests the existence of eight morphological groups. These groups appear to relate to either ecophysiological factors or to factors associated with the stability of the freshwater system rather than to aspects of geographic distribution and genetic isolation. Morphometry, Africa, climatic cline REFERENCES Arthur W. 1982 . Control of shell shape in Lymnaea stagnalis. Heredity 49 : 153 – 161 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Benzecri JP. 1973 . Ľ analyse des donaées. Paris : Dunod . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Brown DS. 1980 . Freshwater snails of Africa and their medical importance. London : Taylor & Francis . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Dupouy J , Mimpfoundi R. 1986 . Cycle biologique de Biomphalaria pfeifferi dans les milieux anthropises du district de Yaounde (Cameroun) . Comptes rendu de la Société de Biogéographie 62 : 47 – 60 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Dussart GBJ. 1983 . The amino acid composition of freshwater molluscan shells in relation to phylogeny and environment . Journal of Molluscan Stuthes 49 : 213 – 223 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Evans NJ. 1989 . Biochemical variation and shell shape in populations of the freshwater snail Lymnaea peregra (Mollusca, Gastropoda. Pulmonatal) from South West Ireland . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 36 : 65 – 78 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Fryer G , Greenwood P, Peake JF. 1983 . Punctuated equilibria, morphological stasis and the paleontological documentation of speciation: a biological appraisal of a case history in an African lake . Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 20 : 195 – 205 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Gould SJ. 1983 . Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging? In: Maynard-Smith , J. (Ed.), Evolution Now. London : Nature & McMillan Press , 129 – 145 . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Henriksen U , Jelnes J. 1980 . Experimental taxonomy of Biomphalaria (Gastropoda, Planorbidae). 1. Methods for experimental taxonomic stuthes on Biomphalaria carried out by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis and staining of twelve enzymes . Journal of Chromatography 188 : 169 – 176 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Jelnes JE. 1980 . Genetics and taxonomic stuthes on natural populations of Bulinus and Biomphalaria. Haliolis 10 : 70 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Kristensen TK , Frandsen F, Christensen AG. 1987 . Bulinus africanus group snails, differentiated by use of biometric multivariate analysis on morphological characters (Pulmonata, Planorbidae) . Revue de Zoologie Africaine 101 : 55 – 67 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Mandahl Barth G. 1958 . Intermediate hosts of Schistosoma: African Biomphalaria and Bulinus. World Health Organization Monographs 37 : 1 – 89 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Meier Brook C. 1984 . A preliminary biogeography of freshwater pulmonate gastropods . In: Solem A, Van Bruggen A. (Eds.), World Wide Snails. Leiden : EJ. Brill , 23 – 37 . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Mimpfoundi R. 1990 . Variations génétiques intra- et interpopulationelles chez les Planorbidae tropicaux. Le polymorphisme enzymatique dans les genres Biomphalaria et Bulinus au Cameroun. These d'etat: Universite de Yaounde, 256p . Mimpfoundi R , Dupouy J, Thaler L, Vianey-Liaud , M Nassi H. 1986 . Differentiation génétique des populations de Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Planorbidae) originaire du centre Sud camerounais et du Senegal . Compte rendu des seances de la Société de biologic 180 : 290 – 295 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Rousseau D-D 1985 . Structure des populations quaternaires de Pupilla muscorum Gasteropodes en Europe du Nord. Relations avec leur environment . These de Doctorat , Universite de Dijon , 133 pp. Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC Williamson PG. 1983 . Paleontological documentation of speciation in Cenozoic Mollusks from Turkana Basin . In: Maynard-Smith J. (Ed.), Evolution Now. London : Nature & McMillan Press , 154 – 166 . Google Scholar Google Preview OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat COPAC This content is only available as a PDF.

PRICE, MARY, V.

doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00936.xpmid: N/A

Abstract The rodent family Heteromyidae contains bipedal hoppers and quadrupedal runners. The possibility that bipedalism is associated with forelimb specialization for nonlocomotory functions, such as burrowing and seed-gathering, motivated a static functional-morphometric and interspecific allometric analysis of 18 metric characters of the forelimb skeleton. A principal-components analysis, across 28 species in six genera, showed that lengths of proximal (scapula, humerus) and distal (ulna, radius, metacarpal) elements were negatively allometric, and widths were positively allometric. Quadrupedal and bipedal species groups showed qualitatively similar allometric patterns, except that scapula width anterior to the spine was positively allometric in quadrupeds and negatively allometric in bipeds; scapula width posterior to the spine was positively allometric in bipeds and isometric in quadrupeds; and olecranon length was isometric in bipeds and positively allometric in quadrupeds. Most morphometric characters varied significantly among species within genera, even when effects of size variation were reduced by reconstructing all species to a common general size (as indicated by their score on the first principal component). These shape differences caused species to vary in the mechanical advantage of the forelimb, of possible importance for digging and seed-harvesting performance. Relative to quadrupeds, bipedal species tended to have greater mechanical advantage for proximal forelimb elements and smaller mechanical advantage for distal forelimb elements, but only the distal pattern remained in reconstructed forms, and no functional character was significantly different when tested over variation among genera nested within locomotion type. Cluster analysis confirmed that forelimb characters related to digging or seed-harvest are not coincident with mode of locomotion. Forelimb characters were, however, associated with digging or seed-harvest performance. Mechanical advantage of the proximal forelimb was positively related to an index of the compaction of soils with which 26 desert-dwelling species are associated, and also to relative use of heavy vs. light soils by nine species in the laboratory. Across 10 species, deviations in seed-harvest rate from expected allometric values were negatively correlated with mechanical advantage of the distal forelimb. interspecific allometry, body form reconstruction, Chaelodipus, digging ability, Dipodomys, Heteromys, Liomys, Microdipodops, Perognathus, seed-harvest rate, soil associations, performance, morphology REFERENCES Armstrong DM. 1979 . Ecological distribution of rodents in Canyonlands National Park, Utah . Great Basin Naturalist 39 : 199 – 205 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat Bailey V. 1931 . Mammals of New Mexico . North American Fauna 53 : 1 – 412 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat Bailey V. 1936 . Mammals and life zones of Oregon . North American Fauna 55 :1–4–16. 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