Teachers College Record

Kelly, Sean; Mozenter, Zachary; Aucejo, Esteban; Fruehwirth, Jane Cooley

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201102pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context There is continuing debate among social scientists and educators about the role of school-to-school differences in generating educational inequality. Are some students high achieving because they attend School A, while others struggle because they attend School B, as critical discourse on schools argues? Alternatively, is educational inequality driven largely by social forces outside of the school, in the home and neighborhood environment, or by educational processes that are largely common across schools as much social science research argues? Analyses of school achievement, and in particular test score gains from year-to-year, suggest very small between-school differences. Yet, analyses of test score data alone may fail to reveal important school-to-school differences that affect the quality of the classroom experience and a variety of educational outcomes. Purpose/Objective We provide evidence on the following research questions. What is the magnitude of school-to-school variation in instructional practice, as captured by multiple measures? Are some domains of instruction (e.g., behavioral management) more variable between schools than others? To what extent are school-to-school differences in instruction associated with compositional characteristics of students and teachers? Research Design This study relies on the Measures of Effective Teaching Study data, which offer an unprecedented set of observations of teachers’ instruction scored on state-of-the-art observational protocols. To examine the extent of school-to-school variation in instructional practice in elementary and middle schools, we conducted a decomposition of variance analysis using summary scores on multiple measures. We further examine behavioral climate as revealed during instruction separately from overall instructional practice. Next, we examine differences in instruction associated with compositional characteristics of students using multilevel models. Finally, we use an innovative two-stage statistical adjustment strategy to more narrowly identify the possible association between composition and teaching practice due to school-to-school teacher sorting. Findings/Results The basic descriptive results from this study suggest a middle view of school-to-school differences in instruction. We find that substantial school-level variation in instruction exists, with 30% or more of the total variance in instruction lying between schools in these data. Behavioral climate during instruction appears to be particularly salient, and especially in elementary schools. Much of the between school variance we identify, in some cases 40% or more, is readily explained by simple measures of socio-demographic composition, including in particular the racial make-up of schools in the MET districts. Finally, some evidence from a statistical adjustment method suggests that teacher sorting, rather than measurement bias and teacher adaptation, is principally responsible for school-to-school differences in instruction. Conclusions/Recommendations More than an academic debate, basic differences between schools in the quality of the learning environment, along with parental understandings and beliefs about school effects, are potentially important drivers of school and neighborhood sorting and segregation, and even public investment in schooling. Additionally, this question carries continued policy relevance as states adopt and revise teacher and school accountability frameworks that implicitly attribute school-to-school differences to organizational functioning, and seek to carry out instructional improvement efforts in targeted schools. The basic descriptive results from this study suggest school-level differences are not as great as suggested by critical theory and the public discourse, but neither are they as inconsequential as one might infer from some social science research or the literature on value-added differences between schools.

Jang, Sung Tae

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201110pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context Policy makers and scholars have long called for the large-scale recruitment of teachers of color, partly based on evidence highlighting the positive effects of racial/ethnic matching between students and teachers of color on various student experiences and achievements. A more nuanced understanding of racial/ethnic matching effects moderated by contextual factors may help policy makers’ and administrators’ assignment decisions on how to consider student and teacher race/ethnicity. Purpose/Objective/Research Question This study examined the contextualized effects of racial/ethnic matching between high school students and teachers, focusing on the urbanicity of schools in the United States, by asking two main research questions: (1) What are the associations between the racial/ethnic matching of students and teachers, and students’ math achievement and self-efficacy in the United States overall? (2) What are the associations among racial/ethnic matching, math achievement, and math self-efficacy in urban schools, and do these patterns differ for suburban and rural schools? Research Design This study used restricted-use national longitudinal data provided by the NCES High School Longitudinal Study of 2009. A strategy of disaggregating data by schools’ urbanicity and three separate analyses with fixed-effect models for each urbanicity (urban, suburban, and rural) was followed to capture the variations across different schools’ urbanicity and to obtain unbiased estimates of racial/ethnic matching effects. Findings/Results Relatively lower percentages of Black, Hispanic, and Asian students were matched with their same-race/ethnicity math teachers compared with White students in all communities. This study found no supporting evidence for positive associations between racial/ethnic matching and math achievement scores and self-efficacy without considering urbanicity. Within the context of urbanicity, positive associations for math achievement were mainly found in the racial/ethnic matching of Black and Asian students taught by same-race/ethnicity teachers in suburban schools. Conversely, the racial/ethnic matching among Asian students and teachers in rural schools was significantly and negatively associated with both math achievement and self-efficacy. Conclusions/Recommendations By focusing specifically on schools’ urbanicity contexts, policy makers and education leaders should consider the relatively lower percentage of racial/ethnic matching between Black students and teachers in urban and suburban schools, and Hispanic students and teachers in urban and rural schools. As rural Asian populations grow and diversify, Asian teachers from diverse cultural backgrounds are urgently needed in these communities. Contextualized policy solutions that consider school environments and cultural differences and that challenge the one-size-fits-all approach will ultimately better address the specific and diverse needs of students of color living in different communities across the United States.

Pryor, Kim Nelson

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201104pmid: N/A

Abstract Context As instructional part-time, non-tenure-track faculty (NTTF) come to constitute an increasing proportion of all teaching faculty in the United States, significant research has investigated the experiences and perspectives of these essential higher education workers. In past decades, a subset of this work has sought to typologize this heterogenous group by various characteristics including their professional attributes and motivations for teaching part-time. Yet these typologies evidence limited usefulness to the robust and current scholarly debate surrounding NTTF in higher education. Purpose This article presents a novel typology of part-time NTTF for the new era of faculty work—an era marked by financial inequality. Thus, the proposed typology sorts these faculty, within the context of structural inequality, by their motivation to teach part-time and their financial dependence on this work. Research Design This analytic essay synthesizes literature on the attributes, work experiences, perspectives, and motivations of part-time NTTF in order to critique existing part-time faculty typologies and present a novel classification system. Conclusions The proposed typology advances three types of part-time NTTF: “thrivers”— those who work as teachers predominantly by preference; “survivors” —those who work as teachers predominantly out of financial need; and “strivers” —those who work as teachers because of a combination of preference and financial need. As proposed, the new typology enables a more complex understanding of part-time faculty's work experiences and better differentiates lines of future inquiry and practice for these essential professionals, many of whom are indispensable to, yet face inequitable working conditions within, the field of higher education.

Rosario-Ramos, Enid; Rodriguez, Awilda; Sawada, Jenny; Diaz, Ana Mireya

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201101pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context In the aftermath of Hurricane Maria, Florida's Mockingbird Public Schools (MPS) received approximately 3,500 students from Puerto Rico. The response to the displacement of Puerto Rican families involved quick decision-making by several stakeholders about how to receive students experiencing trauma and housing insecurity, and whose parents were under- or unemployed. How students experiencing displacement are integrated into their receiving districts is critical to their subsequent educational success and, given increases in extreme natural disasters, we need a better understanding of what care looks like in post-displacement contexts. Purpose Using a care framework, and drawing from interviews with district administrators, school personnel, high school students, and their caregivers, we examine the ways in which MPS enacted care toward Puerto Rican families as well as the ways in which families received such care. Research Design We conducted semi-structured interviews with a variety of MPS stakeholders. These included district personnel (10 interviewees), school personnel (38 interviewees), and families (40 interviewees among students and their caregivers). Analyses were conducted by four research team members by applying a constant comparative approach using NVivo software. Findings/Results Findings show that care was most successfully enacted and received when addressing families’ immediate needs, in contrast to supports for mental health needs, which were seen as insufficient by most stakeholders. Furthermore, we found supports for academic success were inconsistently deployed and unevenly received by students and their families, thus shaping students’ access to educational opportunities. Conclusion As educational disruptions and climate-related displacement becomes more common, it is important for receiving districts to develop policies and practices that facilitate displaced families’ access to quality education. MPS enactment of care was shaped by the local communities’ perceptions of themselves as caring individuals and organizations that felt compelled to aid people fleeing devastation in Puerto Rico. Yet, as Gay indicated, benevolence is not enough; displaced children need educational spaces willing to interrogate and disrupt socio-political and economic injustice in service of students’ personal, academic, and professional well-being. In MPS, we saw the limits of such benevolence reflected in deficit-oriented narratives about Puerto Rican students’ language proficiency and academic preparation, some personnel's unwillingness to support Spanish-dominant Puerto Rican children, and on the pushback against relief efforts experienced by district and school personnel. As a result, these truncated views on caring led to divergent experiences of caring across families, and inconsistent access to rigorous curricula and high academic expectations.

Joseph, Nicole M.; Tyler, Andrea L.; Howard, Nicol R.; Akridge, Samantha L.; Rugo, Kelsi R.

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201105pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context Previous literature has focused on mathematics socialization as it relates to the construction of mathematics identity, yet much of that research has been qualitative and lacking the theorization of high school Black girls. This study presents a longitudinal analysis of the relationships between socialization factors and mathematics identity among high school Black girls. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study Mapping HSLS:09 variables onto Martin's (2000) theoretically rich Multilevel Framework for Analyzing Mathematics Socialization and Identity Among African-Americans, this study explored the distribution of high school Black girls’ responses to questions that measure a mathematics socialization construct and identified relationships between mathematics socialization measures and mathematics identity for Black girls in their ninth- and eleventh-grade years of high school. Research Design, Data Collection, and Analysis This quantitative study used secondary data from the base-year and first follow-up of the High School Longitudinal Study (HSLS:09), a nationally representative longitudinal study that started in 2009 with more than 23,000 ninth grade students from 944 schools. Using multiple linear regression in SPSS 26, the authors mapped HSLS:09 variables onto Martin's (2000) Multilevel Framework for Analyzing Mathematics Socialization and Identity Among African-Americans to test and examine the mathematics socialization constructs of high school Black girls who enrolled in a ninth-grade mathematics course (n=925) and continued participation in the HSLS:09 in their eleventh-grade year (n=637). Findings/Results The results showed that Black girls in the ninth grade with higher scores on measures associated with Martin's theoretical framework (Sociohistorical, School and Institutional and the Intrapersonal subscales) were expected to have higher mathematics identity, after controlling for the other variables in the model. The Community and Family subscale did not contribute to the regression model. The strongest predictor in the ninth-grade year, the Intrapersonal subscale, was still a strong predictor of mathematics identity for Black girls in their eleventh-grade year (B = .16, t (636) = 20.244, p < .000). Martin's theoretical framework holds true for high school Black girls in relation to their mathematics identity, specifically their Intrapersonal socialization. Conclusions/Recommendations The authors conclude that since mathematics is an exclusionary discipline and not necessarily designed for Black girls to succeed, understanding socialization factors can help the field of mathematics education design effective programming and teaching and learning experiences that disrupt hegemonic ways society has socially constructed mathematics. Specifically, mathematics teachers and other educators can work in solidarity with Black girls to help them increase their positive self-perceptions as mathematics learners. Educators engaging in these practices can support Black girls’ resilience and agency in mathematics despite negative contextual factors.

Gottfried, Michael A.; Le, Vi-Nhuan; Kirksey, J. Jacob

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201114pmid: N/A

Abstract Background It is of grave concern that kindergartners are missing more school than students in any other year of elementary school; therefore, documenting which students are absent and for how long is of upmost importance. Yet, doing so for students with disabilities (SWDs) has received little attention. This study addresses this gap by examining two cohorts of SWDs, separated by more than a decade, to document changes in attendance patterns. Research Questions First, for SWDs, has the number of school days missed or chronic absenteeism rates changed over time? Second, how are changes in the number of school days missed and chronic absenteeism rates related to changes in academic emphasis, presence of teacher aides, SWD-specific teacher training, and preschool participation? Subjects This study uses data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS), a nationally representative data set of children in kindergarten. We rely on both ECLS data sets— the kindergarten classes of 1998–1999 and 2010–2011. Measures were identical in both data sets, making it feasible to compare children across the two cohorts. Given identical measures, we combined the data sets into a single data set with an indicator for being in the older cohort. Research Design This study examined two sets of outcomes: The first was number of days absent, and the second was likelihood of being chronically absent. These outcomes were regressed on a measure for being in the older cohort (our key measure for changes over time) and numerous control variables. The error term was clustered by classroom. Findings We found that SWDs are absent more often now than they were a decade earlier, and this growth in absenteeism was larger than what students without disabilities experienced. Absenteeism among SWDs was higher for those enrolled in full-day kindergarten, although having attended center-based care mitigates this disparity over time. Implications are discussed. Conclusions Our study calls for additional attention and supports to combat the increasing rates of absenteeism for SWDs over time. Understanding contextual shifts and trends in rates of absenteeism for SWDs in kindergarten is pertinent to crafting effective interventions and research geared toward supporting the academic and social needs of these students.

Holbert, Nathan; Disalvo, Betsy; Berland, Matthew

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201106pmid: N/A

Abstract Background CS4All is an $81 million private-public investment aimed at creating the necessary infrastructure to provide computer science experiences to all New York City public-school students by 2025. Purpose In this paper, we examine the history of the CS4All initiative and document the network of actors and their relationships in the system such that we can understand how this reform is enacted, how it might be reactive to external contexts and pressures, and how the structure and pathways of this particular social network might inform similar efforts elsewhere. Research Design To structure our analysis of CS4All, we first examine the most recent historic example of a large-scale curricular reform—Man: A Course of Study (MACOS). By reflecting on the network structure of CS4All in light of the design, enactment, and eventual failure of MACOS, we can identify potential pain points and opportunities in CS4All's 10-year effort. We conducted interviews with core members of the CS4All initiative and examined available public records to construct and analyze a social network of key CS4All stakeholders, other actors, processes, and institutions. Conclusions In our analysis of the CS4All social network, we document how well-connected individuals simultaneously mobilized government resources and grassroots enthusiasm to create the conditions necessary for the initiation of this massive curricular reform effort, and describe the current pathways in place for decision making and resource distribution. Comparing the history and structure of the CS4All initiative to Man: A Course of Study —a failed nationwide curricular reform in the 1960s—we find that CS4All's centralized decision-making process and failure to create and distribute high quality formative assessment tools may lead to challenges to adoption. However, explicit efforts to solicit input from and communicate initiative values to the large diversity of stakeholders throughout NYC, as well as the innovation of a decentralized “buffet-style” curricular approach, may put CS4All on more sure footing.

Learned, Julie E.; Dacus, Laura C.; Morgan, Mary Jo; Schiller, Kathryn S.; Gorgun, Guher

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201115pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context High-stakes testing (HST) weaves through the fabric of school life, stretching beyond the test day. Results have consequences for a school's reputation and autonomy, as well as teachers’ evaluations and students’ graduation and morale. Prior research demonstrates the constraining and inequitable effects assessments can have on students’ learning. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study Recently, scholars have called for more research on students’ and teachers’ perspectives on HST. Responding to this call, we conducted a yearlong study in a high school designated as “persistently struggling” by the state. We examined adolescents’ and educators’ perceptions, reactions, and resistance to HST. We traced participants’ interactions with and about testing over the course of a school year as they prepared for, discussed, and eventually participated in test day. Research Design We conducted a yearlong qualitative study in which participants were 15 focal 11th graders and 9 teachers. We conducted 425 hours of observations and 52 interviews, as well as collected assessment data and classroom artifacts. For this article, we used quantitative survey data as a secondary source and analyzed the responses of 425 11th graders. Conclusions/Recommendations Analysis showed that HST served as a dominant context for literacy-related teaching across disciplines. Participants negotiated tension between their beliefs about education and their efforts to boost test scores. Teachers reported that assessments and their accompanying prescriptive curriculum hindered literacy and content area teaching and learning. Students, although they had diverse opinions about HST's usefulness, reported it created emotional distress, which compromised test performance. Testing contributed to a high-pressure environment in which literacy and content instruction were made reductive. Participants’ perspectives, and ways in which they resisted, provide insights into HST effects, as well as suggest promising, alternative routes toward equitable assessment that supports meaningful learning.

Mcwayne, Christine M.; Mistry, Jayanthi; Brenneman, Kimberly; Zan, Betty; Greenfield, Daryl B.

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201111pmid: N/A

Abstract Background/Context In the context of increasing accountability mandates in the preK–12 education system, the importance of professional development (PD) supports for early childhood educators is recognized. Education leaders emphasize the importance of partnering with teachers to inform the development of effective PD approaches. This partnering process is often referred to as co-construction. Co-construction with teachers is thought to be an essential element for ensuring that the learnings gained from any PD program are maintained once intensive supports are removed. However, guidance is scant concerning specific aspects of effective co-construction. Purpose of Study In this article, we document the process of co-construction within the Readiness through Integrative Science and Engineering (RISE) curriculum and PD approach. In so doing, we hope to illuminate processes potentially at work within the “black box” of PD. Setting/Participants The RISE project was implemented at two Head Start program sites that served a high proportion of dual language learning children and immigrant families in a large city in the northeastern United States. Participants were teachers and parent volunteers from these two programs. Research Design Using grounded theory methods, qualitative data on implementation across key RISE contexts were analyzed. Data collected across three years included digital audio- and video-recorded interactions among participants, written documentation of meeting agendas, planning notes, and meeting notes. Results Analyses resulted in the articulation of a three-step process: (1) setting the conditions for co-construction (establishing mutual respect and trust among partners, leveling roles and authority, and validating/naming partners’ expertise); (2) establishing joint activities as the core process (setting shared goals and agenda, building relationships, and validating co-constructed products); and (3) observing outcomes of co-construction (shifts in attitudes and interactional roles, appropriation of RISE concepts, and integration of RISE components). Conclusions/Recommendations The RISE model of co-construction comports with what others in the field have proposed about the importance of teacher input into their own professional learning, adding further dimensionality through systematic documentation and grounded theory analysis. We discuss how the RISE co-construction approach is similar to and distinct from other such efforts in the field of early childhood education, and we suggest future directions for research to document and test effective PD processes.

Hammerness, Karen; Klette, Kirsti; Jenset, Inga Staal; Canrinus, Esther T.

doi: 10.1177/016146812012201108pmid: N/A

Abstract Background Around the world, policy makers and teacher educators are paying increasing attention to how teacher candidates learn to study and enact teaching and to grounding preparation more deeply in teachers’ classroom practice. Evidence from the United States and the Netherlands suggests that efforts to tie preparation to practice may significantly impact pupils’ learning. However, the nature of teacher candidates’ opportunities to study, practice, and rehearse teaching remains underexplored, especially in international studies. Purpose Our research analyzes opportunities to study, practice, and rehearse teaching in teacher education coursework in five different programs in five countries. We focus specifically on the degree to which campus coursework provides candidates with opportunities to study, practice, and rehearse actual teaching practices. What kind of opportunities exist in these international programs’ coursework to study, practice, and rehearse teaching? Are there any typical patterns and connections that teacher education students encounter more often than others? Research Design Our multiple case study design uses data from surveys of program candidates, observations of methods courses, and interviews with program faculty and students. We highlight our inclusion of observation of methods courses, which are relatively rare in studies of teacher education. We collected these data in five programs in five countries: Chile, Cuba, Finland, Norway, and the United States. Findings Analysis of all data revealed frequent opportunities for candidates to analyze artifacts from teaching and to do work that pupils will do. Candidates had some opportunities to plan, to rehearse teaching strategies, and to experience their teacher educator modeling teaching practices. Despite a growing focus on student learning in the United States and in other countries, there were few opportunities for teacher candidates to analyze student learning or to examine samples of students’ work. The dearth of opportunities for candidates to examine and analyze student learning was especially surprising: We underscore this finding as critical for teacher education. Conclusions These findings about opportunities to study, practice, and rehearse teaching can provide helpful lenses for teacher education programs to examine where and how they offer these opportunities. Teacher educators may wish to consider the balance of learning opportunities within programs. The programs offered ample opportunities to plan for teaching, for instance. However, substantial experiences may come at the expense of others, especially when compared with the few opportunities to examine student learning.