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Koenderink, Jan; van Doorn, Andrea
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002007pmid: N/A
In The Problem of Form (1893), the German sculptor Adolf Hildebrand distinguishes categorically between perception obtained from multiple fixations or vantage points (G.: Bewegungsvorstellungen ; we call these ‘assemblages’), and from purely ‘iconic’ imagery (G.: Fernbilder ). Only the latter he considers properly ‘artistic’. Hildebrand finds the reason for this ontological distinction in the microgenesis of visual awareness. What to make of this? We analyze the various ‘modes of seeing’ in some detail. The conceptual issues involved are fundamental, and relevant to both vision science and the visual arts.
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002006pmid: N/A
This is a report of a studio experiment to explore how images from the camera obscura could have been used directly by artists of Vermeer’s era. It has a pragmatic and practical approach, bringing a painter’s eye and experience to the problems of transferring images from the lens to a canvas, using the primitive technology and unrefined materials available then. It addresses how an artist could use the condensed, flattened images from camera obscura projections in his painting process, when the subject could appear reversed and inverted on the screen or on the wall. It considers how the limitations of the materials that make transfers possible might affect studio practice, and ultimately the stylistic qualities of the work produced. This paper outlines a simple printing method that would enable the seventeenth-century painter to transfer monochrome images, corrected in orientation, from the lens to a canvas with relative ease, for use as the painting progressed in the stages prescribed at the time. Prints made on the ground layer could form the basis of underpainting, while those on top layers could transfer highlights and optical effects, not seen with the naked eye. This technique would allow the painter to be in the light of his studio, facing his motif, when working in colour. Reference is made to art historical literature and contemporary workshop treatises, and all materials used are authentic. The results obtained using this process are consistent with the visual evidence of the way in which Vermeer applied his paint, and with recent scientific examination of his work. The findings suggest possible causes for some of the unusual qualities of Vermeer’s work, in particular the strong tonal polarity in the underpainting with no evidence of drawing, his choice of material in the ground layers, and the qualities of variable focus.
Pepperell, Robert; Ruschkowski, Anja
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002001pmid: N/A
‘Double images’ are a little-noticed feature of human binocular vision caused by non-convergence of the eyes outside of the point of fixation. Double vision, or psychological diplopia, is closely linked to the perception of depth in natural vision as its perceived properties vary depending on proximity of the stimulus to the viewer. Very little attention, however, has been paid to double images in art or in scientific studies of pictorial depth. Double images have rarely been depicted and do not appear among the list of commonly cited monocular depth cues. In this study we discuss some attempts by artists to capture the doubled appearance of objects in pictures, and some of the relevant scientific work on double vision. We then present the results of a study designed to test whether the inclusion of double images in two-dimensional pictures can enhance the illusion of three-dimensional space. Our results suggest that double images can significantly enhance depth perception in pictures when combined with other depth cues such as blur. We conclude that double images could be added to the list of depth cues available to those wanting to create a greater sense of depth in pictures.
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002004pmid: N/A
Hybrid images are static pictures with two interpretations that change depending on the image’s viewing distance or size. The phenomenon of hybrid images arises from the multiscale processing of images in the human visual system. By taking into account perceptual grouping mechanisms, one can build compelling hybrid images with two different stable interpretations: one that appears when the image is viewed up-close, and the other that appears from afar. Hybrid images can be used to create compelling prints and photographs in which the observer experiences different percepts when interacting with the image.
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002008pmid: N/A
This work explores phenomenologically a new research perspective, whose purpose is to answer the question ‘why are paintings painted as they are?’. This perspective is based on the pictorial reproduction task aimed to reveal how subjects of different ages copy/paint what they perceived and how they organize the visual raw material. The results demonstrated the emergence of visual singularities organized in at least four stages going from 4 to 18 years of age reflecting different artistic styles and accomplishments appeared during the history of art. These outcomes entail that the answer to the previous basic question is: ‘we paint what and the way we paint because we perceive what and the way we perceive’ (painting–perception coupling). On the basis of these results, it is suggested that children’s drawings can significantly contribute to the comprehension and explanation of the painting–perception coupling.
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002005pmid: N/A
Realistic pictures, whether paintings, photographs or rendered images of models, are traditionally obtained using classical perspective projection. Here I focus on pictures of people and discuss evidence suggesting that, for best results, full-length realistic-looking portraits should be produced by combining multiple viewpoints. I test this prediction experimentally and find that full-length portraits look more compelling if appropriate multiple viewpoints are chosen. I notice that multi-viewpoint portraiture has likely been used since the Renaissance, although no explicit mention of it is found in the literature.
Wagemans, Johan; Koenderink, Jan; van Doorn, Andrea
doi: 10.1163/22134913-00002003pmid: N/A
Are pictorial spaces evoked by intentionally ambiguous pictures internally coherent? If so, then we expect these to be idiosyncratic. We addressed this issue empirically. Three sheets from the second edition of Piranesi’s Carceri d’Inventione were selected for the experiment. These were compared with a conventional landscape drawing (after a Capriccio by Guardi) as a base line. The pictorial spaces were probed by way of pairwise depth-order judgments. In each image about fifty landmarks were selected, thus yielding over a thousand binary depth-order judgments per image. From such a full set of pairwise comparisons one obtains a linear depth order. This linear order again yields postdictions for the individual pairwise judgments. Actual judgments differ from these postdictions, thereby yielding a convenient handle on the coherence of the pictorial space. Since the Piranesi Carceri are generally considered to be ‘difficult’, ‘ambiguous’ or ‘labyrinthine’, whereas a conventional landscape as the Guardi is designed for its well-defined depth structure, it is expected that they will give rise to very distinct degrees of coherence. This is indeed what we find. We studied the variation of coherence over observers and images in detail. The pictorial locations that are heavily involved in incoherent responses were identified, and the reason for their ambiguous nature traced in the structure of the depth cues provided by the artist (Piranesi). We speculate that the Carceri manage to strike just the right level of ambiguity (between total chaos and obvious structure) so as to render them visually attractive.
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