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Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo, two Indonesian volcanoes

Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo, two Indonesian volcanoes Open Access Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 Natural Hazards www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ and Earth System doi:10.5194/nhess-13-2399-2013 © Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Sciences Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo, two Indonesian volcanoes 1,2,3,4 4 4 4 4 P. Bani , Surono , M. Hendrasto , H. Gunawan , and S. Primulyana Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand (OPGC), Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, BP 10448, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France LMV, CNRS, UMR6524, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France LMV, IRD, R 163, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Jl Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung, Indonesia Correspondence to: P. Bani ([email protected]) Received: 6 April 2013 – Published in Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss.: 14 May 2013 Revised: 14 August 2013 – Accepted: 1 September 2013 – Published: 2 October 2013 Abstract. Indonesia hosts 79 active volcanoes, represent- quality (Charlson et al., 1992; Jones et al., 2001; Penner et ing 14 % of all active volcanoes worldwide. However, little al., 2001; Stevenson et al., 2003). It is a relatively abundant is known about their SO contribution into the atmosphere, species in the volcanic plume, typically in third place behind due to isolation and access difficulties. Existing SO emis- H O and CO with around 5 mol% of gas content along with 2 2 2 sion budgets for the Indonesian archipelago are based on ex- H S (Shinohara, 2008). SO has a very low background level 2 2 trapolations and inferences as there is a considerable lack of in the atmosphere and strong identifiable optical absorption field assessments of degassing. Here, we present the first SO features in the ultraviolet (UV) skylight region that offer var- flux measurements using differential optical absorption spec- ious options for spectroscopic detection in the atmosphere troscopy (DOAS) for Papandayan and Bromo, two of the (McGonigle et al., 2003). SO is thus a readily measurable most active volcanoes in Indonesia. Results indicate mean species, widely recognized as an important and highly de- −1 SO emission rates of 1.4 t d from the fumarolic activity sirable component of multidisciplinary volcano monitoring. −1 of Papandayan and more than 22–32 t d of SO released Many observatories routinely measure SO emission rates in 2 2 by Bromo during a declining eruptive phase. These DOAS support of their monitoring networks. The global SO emis- results are very encouraging and pave the way for a better sion budget estimates over the last four decades range from −1 evaluation of Indonesian volcanic emissions. 1.5 to 40 Tg yr (Table 1) – a very large range due to the di- versity of methodology used, the extending number of stud- ied volcanoes and the increasing development of measure- ment techniques. 1 Introduction According to the IPCC report (2001), the global volcanic SO emission budget is highly uncertain, because only very Volcanic degassing into the atmosphere constitutes one of the few of the potential sources have been measured and the vari- external expressions of subsurface magmatic and hydrother- ability between sources and between different stages of activ- mal manifestations. Reciprocally, any changes in the chemi- ity is considerable. Over the last ten years, the increasing de- cal and physical properties of the plume are generally symp- velopment in the field of remote sensing has improved our tomatic of modifications in the magmatic reservoir and/or knowledge on the distribution of volcanic volatile sources conduits. Among the volcanic volatile components released across the earth and even on the remote and less accessible into the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide (SO ) enhances consid- edifices (McGonigle et al., 2004; Mather et al., 2006; Bani et erable research interest due to its non-negligible roles in the al., 2012; McCormick et al., 2012). But still many volcanoes atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric radiation, hydrological on earth have never had their degassing rates evaluated. This cycle and climate, as well as acidic precipitation and air Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 2400 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 1. Java island with its 18 active volcanoes. The target volcanoes, Papandayan and Bromo, are indicated. The location of Java and the studied volcanoes within the Indonesian archipelago is provided below. is the case in Indonesia where, despite the high number of ac- Bromo is located 75 km south of Surabaya, East Java. tive volcanoes, the past SO emission estimates were based It occupies the central part of the Tengger caldera – a on extrapolation and inference (Nho et al., 1996; Halmer et well-defined and a roughly square structure around 7 km al., 2002; Hilton et al., 2002), whilst SO flux measurements wide (Fig. 2). The caldera rim culminates at more than were carried out only on 4 volcanoes (Table 1). This present 2600 m above sea level, and the inner caldera floor is around work aims to point out this misrepresentation and further 2100 m a.s.l. More than 60 explosive eruptions (mainly with highlight a possibility to constrain the SO emission better VEI = 2) have been reported to have occurred on Bromo from Indonesian volcanoes using differential optical absorp- over the past four centuries (source: GVP). However, in tion spectroscopy (DOAS). contrast to Papandayan, no causalities were reported ex- We present SO flux measurements, obtained in June 2011 cept for the two tourists killed during the 2004 eruption from two volcanoes in Indonesia – including Papandayan and after venturing too close to the volcano. The present-day Bromo (Fig. 1), two volcanoes among the most active in In- active crater, through which magmatic degassing occurs, donesia, and they represent two end-members of volcanic de- is Bromo’s smallest (500 m in diameter) and northernmost gassing types: a fumarolic emission on Papandayan and an crater (Fig. 2) (Andres and Kasgnoc, 1998; Nho et al., open vent degassing from Bromo 1996; GVP Bromo – 03/1995 (BGVN 20:03); GVP Bromo – 05/2004 (BGVN 29:05)). 2 Papandayan and Bromo volcanoes 3 Methods Papandayan is a complex stratovolcano culminating 2665 m above sea level with a base diameter of ∼ 8 km (Fig. 2) lo- SO fluxes were measured using a USB2000 ultraviolet spec- cated 45 km south–southeast of Bandung city, West Java. The trometer, and SO column amounts were retrieved by fol- edifice became well known after its 1772 eruption that caused lowing standard DOAS calibration and analysis procedures the collapse of the northeast flank, leading to a devastating (Kraus, 2006; Platt and Stutz, 2008). The spectral range of debris avalanche over 250 square kilometers that destroyed the spectrometer is 280–400 nm with a spectral resolution about 40 villages and killed nearly 3000 people (Abidin et of 0.5 nm FWHM (full width at half maximum). Light en- al., 2006). Papandayan ranks 11th out of the 13 deadliest tered the spectrometer through a telescope (8 mrad FOV) eruptions on earth (Blong, 1984). Other eruptions have been and via a fiber optic bundle. The Vispec program (http:// reported for this volcano in 1882, 1923–1927, 1942, 1993 vispect.sourceforge.net/) was used to field-track the volcanic and 2002 (Abidin et al., 2006). The latest eruption in 2002 plume. Total integration times of 3 s (exposure time 300 ms, is well detailed in Abidin et al. (2006) – about 6000 peo- 10 co-added spectra) and 1.6 s (exposure time 200 ms, 8 co- ple were evacuated. Magmatic degassing on Papandayan oc- added spectra) were applied to Papandayan and Bromo re- curs mainly in two fumarolic zones, aligned in a northwest– spectively. Reference spectra included in the non-linear fit southeasterly direction and located in a deformed, horseshoe- were obtained by convolving high-resolution SO (Bogumil shaped eastern crater (Fig. 2) (Mazot et al., 2007, 2008). et al., 2003) and O (Voigt et al., 2001) cross sections with Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2401 Table 1. SO flux contributions from Indonesian volcanoes in the global volcanic emission budgets. Authors Global SO Estimation technique Contribution from emission budget Indonesian volcanoes. −1 (Tg yr ) Kellogg et al. (1972) 1.5 SO emission budget deduced from the volume of SO contribution from 2 2 erupted lava and assuming that SO constitutes 0.5 % Indonesian volcanoes not of the erupted gas. specified. Cadle (1975) 7.5 SO emission budget deduced from the volume of SO contribution from 2 2 erupted lava and assuming that SO constitutes 2.5 % Indonesian volcanoes not of the erupted gas. specified. −1 Le Guern (1982) 5–10 SO budget estimation was based on lava density, gas 0.073 Tg yr from content and viscosity. Indonesia (only Merapi volcano was considered in this estimation). Berresheim and 15.3 SO emission budget obtained from a classification of SO contribution from 2 2 Jaeschke (1983) volcanic activities in the literature. Indonesian volcanoes not specified. Stoiber et al. (1987) 18.7 Based on 35 volcanoes monitored by COSPEC and SO contribution from questionnaire sent to volcanologists to estimate plume Indonesian volcanoes not sizes, from which SO burdens were specified. calculated. −1 Spiro et al. (1992) 19.2 SO budget estimation derived from the Volcanic 0.41 Tg yr attributed to Explosivity Index (VEI) with data from Simkin et Indonesian volcanoes. al. (1981) and as function of location (at convergent plate margin or not). For some volcanoes, estimations were derived from plume size. Andres and Kasgnoc 13 Data from TOMS and COSPEC, as well as data from Indonesian volcanoes (1998) journals, conferences and personal communication. contributed only −1 0.10 Tg yr (3 volcanoes were considered, including Merapi, Tangkuban Parahu, Bromo and Slamet). Graf et al. (1997) 34.9 SO emission budget derived from atmospheric SO emissions not specified 2 2 circulation–chemistry model. for Indonesia. However the authors indicate strong sulfate burden over the archipelago. −1 Halmer et al. (2002) 15–21 SO emission budget based on 360 explosively de- 2.1–2.6 Tg yr attributed to gassing subaerial volcanoes, of which 50 were mon- Indonesia subduction zone. itored directly by TOMS and/or COSPEC; the sulfur emission of the remaining 310 volcanoes was extrap- olated. Diehl et al. (2012) 26 SO emission budget is derived using the Volcanic SO emissions not specified 2 2 Sulfur Index (VSI) and based on 1167 volcanoes con- for Indonesian archipelago. sidered to be active in the Global Volcanism Program from 1979 to 2009. Data are replaced by specific ob- servation from TOMS and OMI when available or in some cases with COSPEC measurements and more detailed analyses from open literature. the instrument line shape. A Fraunhofer reference spectrum fit. Each spectrum position was determined from a continu- and ring spectrum, calculated in DOASIS, were also included ously recording GPS unit. Wind speeds were obtained us- in the fit. The optimum fitting windows of 302–325 nm and ing a handheld anemometer at high points, to the east of 300–320 nm for Papandayan and Bromo respectively were the Tengger caldera rim for Bromo and about 200 m above evaluated by obtaining a near random fit residual with min- the northern fumarole zone on Papandayan. On this latter imum deviation. Figures 3 and 5 show examples of the SO volcano, DOAS SO flux measurements were performed in 2 2 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 2402 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 2. Maps of the Papandayan summit and the Bromo caldera. The DOAS traverse zones are shaded in gray. The main degassing points are shown: fumarole zones on Papandayan and the active crater on Bromo. Pictures provide a synoptic view of degassing during the field measurements. walking-traverse mode (McGonigle et al., 2002). The spec- light. We estimate that the error in the column amount con- trometer was carried with the telescope pointing to the zenith tributes 0.006–0.014 to the squared variation coefficient of while walking across the northern part of the eastern crater the total flux, whilst error contributions from the distance (Fig. 2). The plume was drifting to the northwest at the time traversed perpendicular to the plume and from the assumed of measurement. A complementary USB4000 spectrometer wind direction following the approached detailed in Mather was positioned on a fixed mode, operating within the 292– et al. (2006) are 0.001–0.006 and ∼ 0.003 respectively. Note 446 nm spectral range and with 0.3 FWHM spectral reso- however that all these errors are negligible in comparison to lution. SO column amounts were retrieved using the same uncertainties in the plume speed (e.g., Stoiber et al., 1983). procedures as for the USB2000. On Bromo, access into the We assumed that the plume transport speed is conservative caldera was possible using a 4WD vehicle, so DOAS tra- throughout our measurements period with a relative error of verses were done on a vehicle (Fig. 2). During measurement, ∼ 30–35 %, consistent with Stoiber et al. (1983). the wind was from the east, forcing the plume partially above the inaccessible relief zone to the west (Fig. 2). To ensure 4 Results and discussion measurements across the entire plume, the telescope was po- sitioned with an inclination of around 30 from the zenith. The DOAS measurements obtained in this work are summa- 3.1 Errors in the SO flux measurements rized in Table 2, while Figs. 4 and 5 display plots of all tra- verses and static measurements. Non-linear fits of recorded Error in the SO flux measurements is derived from four dif- spectra under Bromo and Papandayan highlight strong SO ferent factors, including the retrieved column amount, the signals in the plume (Figs. 3 and 5) with maximum concen- distance perpendicular to the plume transport direction, the trations largely exceeding 100 ppm.m above the background angle between the assumed wind direction and the traverse level. It is therefore evident at this stage that Papandayan and path and the plume transport speed (Mather et al., 2006). Er- Bromo release SO into the atmosphere. ror in the retrieved SO column amount depends on many factors (Stutz and Platt, 1996; Hausmann et al., 1999; Kern et 4.1 Papandayan’s SO emission rate al., 2010), but we assume that the dominant error is induced by variable cloudiness that we compensate using artificial Results indicate that SO emission rate on Papandayan fluc- −1 constant dark, calculated from each recorded spectrum, in tuates between 0.4±0.1 and 2.8±0.8 t d with a mean value −1 the range of blind pixel (pixel below 290 nm) (Tsanev, 2008). of 1.4± 0.5 t d . This fluctuation is consistent with DOAS Such corrections account for dark spectrum, offset and stray static measurements (Fig. 4) where the SO column amount Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2403 Fig. 3. Example of DOAS SO fit on Papandayan. Blue lines are recorded spectra. The background spectra were acquired by pointing outside the plume. Table 2. Estimated SO emission rates for Papandayan and Bromo. Start time (UT) Mean measurement Average column State of activity Date of local time = distance from Plume amount SO flux −2 −1 Volcano during measurements measurements Traverse UT + 7 sources (km) width (km) (mg m ) (t d ) Papandayan Degassing through fumaroles 18/06/11 Trav_1 06:47:04 0.6 0.14 37 0.4± 0.1 Trav_2 06:51:03 0.5 0.11 110 1.2± 0.4 Trav_3 06:56:45 0.6 0.11 110 1.2± 0.4 Trav_4 06:59:51 0.5 0.10 114 1.2± 0.4 Trav_5 07:04:35 0.5 0.12 200 2.8± 0.8 Trav_6 07:08:11 0.5 0.11 209 2.2± 0.7 −1 Mean SO emission rate = 1.4± 0.5 t d Bromo Open vent degassing 23/06/11 Trav_1 03:11:58 2.3 0.30 49 2.4± 0.8 Trav_2 03:20:48 2.3 0.75 120 32.1± 11.2 Trav_3 03:32:50 2.3 0.14 54 0.7± 0.2 Trav_4 03:37:20 2.3 0.68 79 22.0± 7.7 Trav_5 03:49:23 2.3 0.16 30 0.7± 0.2 −1 Mean SO emission rate = 27.1± 9.5 t d The mean emission rate is deduced from traverses 2 and 4 (in bold), whose profiles are closer to the real degassing of Bromo. Traverses 1, 3 and 5 account for a small portion of the plume (see text for further detail). −1 increased progressively from ∼ 40 ppm.m to ∼ 140 ppm.m gas discharges pumping up to 0.03 kg SO s into the at- over a period of 30 min before dropping to the background mosphere. In any case, Papandayan’s SO contribution to level in the following 15 min. The SO flux increased ac- the atmosphere is relatively small compared to other vol- cordingly in traverses 1 to 5 and then decreased in tra- canic sources (Andres and Kasgnoc, 1998). Assuming that verse 6. Further measurements are required to delimit Pa- the DOAS results are representative, this volcano releases pandayan emissions better. However, it is likely that changes only about 500 tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere an- in Papandayan’s SO emission rate come from subsurface nually. This low SO release into the atmosphere is expected 2 2 magmatic–hydrothermal processes with regular magmatic for fumarolic-type activity. Mazot et al. (2008) provide a www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 2404 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 5. Example of DOAS SO fit on Bromo (left). Measurement spectra are blue. Traverse measurement profiles are shown (right). Fig. 4. Plots of traverse (above) and static (below) measurement Traverses 1, 3 and 5 did not catch the bulk concentration while tra- results obtained on Papandayan. Time axes were aligned highlight- verses 2 and 4 commenced in the plume (see text). ing the increase of SO column amounts in both static and traverse measurements. Consequently, when considering SO flux measurements for compilation of Papandayan gas chemistry, and mean SO monitoring purposes, the existence of hydrothermal pro- concentration (0.11 mol%) is significantly lower than H S cesses should be taken into account. Alternatively, H S may concentration (0.51 mol%). Assuming that these concentra- be a good candidate for monitoring as suggested by Symonds tions are representative, and using the H S / SO molar ra- et al. (2001) and Aiuppa et al. (2005). In any case, the DOAS 2 2 tio of 4.6, the H S emission rate from Papandayan can measurement results highlight the potential of SO monitor- −1 −1 ing of this fumarolically active volcano, and the 1.4 t d of be estimated at around 3.4 t d , more than twice the SO SO released into the atmosphere can henceforth be used as emission rate. According to experimental studies and ther- a baseline for future SO flux measurements. mochemical modeling of volatile partitioning between va- por and liquid in two-phase hydrothermal systems, CO is the most abundant hydrothermal gas followed by H S – 4.2 Bromo’s SO emission rate other sulfurous gases are negligible (Symonds et al., 2001; Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985; Giggenbach, 1980; Reed The SO flux measurements from Bromo vary roughly be- −1 −1 and Spycher, 1984, 1985; Spycher and Reed, 1989). The tween 0.7± 0.2 t d and 32± 11.2 t d , but unlike the Pa- strong availability of H S suggests the existence of active pandayan survey, there were no static measurements to sup- hydrothermal processes beneath Papandayan’s fumarolic ac- port this investigation. Furthermore, despite the strong signal tivity, and that a portion of the SO released from the mag- obtained in the SO fit procedure (Fig. 5), all the traverses 2 2 matic source probably sinks out by hydrolysis (4SO + 4H O were not completed (Fig. 5), and SO fluxes for traverses 1, 3 2 2 2 = H S + 3H SO and 3SO + 2H O = S + 2H SO ) (Hol- and 5 were dramatically reduced in comparison to traverses 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 land, 1965) or is trapped by other hydrothermal processes. and 4. The reason for this disparity was the inclination of the Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2405 5 Conclusions We present the first DOAS SO flux estimates for Papan- dayan and Bromo, two of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia. Results indicate mean SO emission rates of −1 1.4 t d from Papandayan’s fumarolic activity and more −1 than 22–32 t d of SO released by Bromo during a de- clining eruptive phase. Results further indicate that Papan- dayan’s SO release is sustained by the regular discharge of Fig. 6. Bromo degassing observed during two different periods. In gas, although much of the SO is likely trapped by subsur- June 2011 (left), during measurement, the degassing was clearly face hydrothermal processes, leading to significant release of visible 2 km from the volcano. In May 2012, there was no plume on H S into the atmosphere. Bromo’s SO releases appear not Bromo and no SO detected by DOAS. Only a stagnate white vapor 2 2 was observed in the active crater (right). to be persistent over time. This volcano is nevertheless a ma- jor source of volcanic degassing into the atmosphere given its 6–7 yr cycle of periodic eruptive activity. In contrast, the telescope since part of the plume dispersed above the west- permanent degassing on Papandayan represents a negligible ern relief (Fig. 2). Traverses 2 and 4 commenced below the contribution of SO to the atmosphere outside eruptive pe- plume, but the relief configuration precluded a complete pro- riods. Finally, the DOAS measurements obtained on Papan- file across the plume, while traverses 1, 3 and 5 began away dayan and Bromo are very encouraging given the numerous from the plume, and the telescope inclination was not suffi- volcanoes in Indonesia whose degassing has never been eval- cient to catch the bulk plume concentration when the vehi- uated. In addition, this work establishes benchmarks for SO cle reached the relief. The outcome of these DOAS SO flux flux monitoring on both Bromo and Papandayan. measurements may not be representative of the volcano’s ac- tivity at the time of the survey. However, in the configuration described above, the measurements from traverses 2 and 4 Acknowledgements. We acknowledge technical assistance from are much closer to reality, suggesting an SO flux of more Bromo and Papandayan observatories. Field work was supported −1 than 22–32 t d . In the past, the SO emission rate of this 2 by IRD and CVGHM. We appreciate support from IFI. volcano was estimated during two eruptive periods: on 8– −1 27 March 1995 (6, 22 and 22 t d ) (GVP, 03/1995 – BGVN Edited by: A. Costa −1 Reviewed by: P. Allard and two anonymous referees 20:03) and on 14 June 2004 (200 t d ) (GVP, 05/2004 – BGVN 29:05). The SO fluxes published in Andres and Kag- noc’s (1998) well-known paper were derived from the March 1995 COSPEC measurements as no DOAS results exist prior The publication of this article to this work. Our DOAS measurements were carried out in is financed by CNRS-INSU. June 2011 after a strong eruptive phase that commenced in November 2010 and persisted until April 2012. Thus, our results likely reflect the continuous decline of the eruptive phase. In May 2012, a second DOAS survey was organized on Bromo, but, surprisingly, the results showed no SO emis- References sion from the active crater (Fig. 6). Bromo is therefore not a persistent source of SO in the atmosphere, as widely Abidin, H. Z., Andreas, H., Suganda, O. K., Meilano, I., Hen- thought. However, this volcano has a high frequency of erup- drasto, M., Kusuma, M. A., Darmawan, D., Purbawinata, M. tive activity – about one eruption every 6–7 yr since 1804 A., Wirakusumah, A. D., and Kimata, F.: Ground deforma- (http://www.volcano.si.edu/index.cfm), which indicates that tion of Papandayan volcano before, during, and after the 2002 it is nevertheless a major contributor of SO to the atmo- 2 eruption as detected by GPS surveys, B. Volcanol., 10, 75–84, sphere. 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Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo, two Indonesian volcanoes

Bani, P.; Hendrasto, M.; Gunawan, H.; Primulyana, S.; Surono
Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences – Oct 2, 2013
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Open Access Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 Natural Hazards www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ and Earth System doi:10.5194/nhess-13-2399-2013 © Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Sciences Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo, two Indonesian volcanoes 1,2,3,4 4 4 4 4 P. Bani , Surono , M. Hendrasto , H. Gunawan , and S. Primulyana Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Observatoire de Physique du Globe de Clermont-Ferrand (OPGC), Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, BP 10448, 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France LMV, CNRS, UMR6524, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France LMV, IRD, R 163, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Jl Diponegoro No. 57, Bandung, Indonesia Correspondence to: P. Bani ([email protected]) Received: 6 April 2013 – Published in Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss.: 14 May 2013 Revised: 14 August 2013 – Accepted: 1 September 2013 – Published: 2 October 2013 Abstract. Indonesia hosts 79 active volcanoes, represent- quality (Charlson et al., 1992; Jones et al., 2001; Penner et ing 14 % of all active volcanoes worldwide. However, little al., 2001; Stevenson et al., 2003). It is a relatively abundant is known about their SO contribution into the atmosphere, species in the volcanic plume, typically in third place behind due to isolation and access difficulties. Existing SO emis- H O and CO with around 5 mol% of gas content along with 2 2 2 sion budgets for the Indonesian archipelago are based on ex- H S (Shinohara, 2008). SO has a very low background level 2 2 trapolations and inferences as there is a considerable lack of in the atmosphere and strong identifiable optical absorption field assessments of degassing. Here, we present the first SO features in the ultraviolet (UV) skylight region that offer var- flux measurements using differential optical absorption spec- ious options for spectroscopic detection in the atmosphere troscopy (DOAS) for Papandayan and Bromo, two of the (McGonigle et al., 2003). SO is thus a readily measurable most active volcanoes in Indonesia. Results indicate mean species, widely recognized as an important and highly de- −1 SO emission rates of 1.4 t d from the fumarolic activity sirable component of multidisciplinary volcano monitoring. −1 of Papandayan and more than 22–32 t d of SO released Many observatories routinely measure SO emission rates in 2 2 by Bromo during a declining eruptive phase. These DOAS support of their monitoring networks. The global SO emis- results are very encouraging and pave the way for a better sion budget estimates over the last four decades range from −1 evaluation of Indonesian volcanic emissions. 1.5 to 40 Tg yr (Table 1) – a very large range due to the di- versity of methodology used, the extending number of stud- ied volcanoes and the increasing development of measure- ment techniques. 1 Introduction According to the IPCC report (2001), the global volcanic SO emission budget is highly uncertain, because only very Volcanic degassing into the atmosphere constitutes one of the few of the potential sources have been measured and the vari- external expressions of subsurface magmatic and hydrother- ability between sources and between different stages of activ- mal manifestations. Reciprocally, any changes in the chemi- ity is considerable. Over the last ten years, the increasing de- cal and physical properties of the plume are generally symp- velopment in the field of remote sensing has improved our tomatic of modifications in the magmatic reservoir and/or knowledge on the distribution of volcanic volatile sources conduits. Among the volcanic volatile components released across the earth and even on the remote and less accessible into the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide (SO ) enhances consid- edifices (McGonigle et al., 2004; Mather et al., 2006; Bani et erable research interest due to its non-negligible roles in the al., 2012; McCormick et al., 2012). But still many volcanoes atmospheric chemistry, atmospheric radiation, hydrological on earth have never had their degassing rates evaluated. This cycle and climate, as well as acidic precipitation and air Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 2400 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 1. Java island with its 18 active volcanoes. The target volcanoes, Papandayan and Bromo, are indicated. The location of Java and the studied volcanoes within the Indonesian archipelago is provided below. is the case in Indonesia where, despite the high number of ac- Bromo is located 75 km south of Surabaya, East Java. tive volcanoes, the past SO emission estimates were based It occupies the central part of the Tengger caldera – a on extrapolation and inference (Nho et al., 1996; Halmer et well-defined and a roughly square structure around 7 km al., 2002; Hilton et al., 2002), whilst SO flux measurements wide (Fig. 2). The caldera rim culminates at more than were carried out only on 4 volcanoes (Table 1). This present 2600 m above sea level, and the inner caldera floor is around work aims to point out this misrepresentation and further 2100 m a.s.l. More than 60 explosive eruptions (mainly with highlight a possibility to constrain the SO emission better VEI = 2) have been reported to have occurred on Bromo from Indonesian volcanoes using differential optical absorp- over the past four centuries (source: GVP). However, in tion spectroscopy (DOAS). contrast to Papandayan, no causalities were reported ex- We present SO flux measurements, obtained in June 2011 cept for the two tourists killed during the 2004 eruption from two volcanoes in Indonesia – including Papandayan and after venturing too close to the volcano. The present-day Bromo (Fig. 1), two volcanoes among the most active in In- active crater, through which magmatic degassing occurs, donesia, and they represent two end-members of volcanic de- is Bromo’s smallest (500 m in diameter) and northernmost gassing types: a fumarolic emission on Papandayan and an crater (Fig. 2) (Andres and Kasgnoc, 1998; Nho et al., open vent degassing from Bromo 1996; GVP Bromo – 03/1995 (BGVN 20:03); GVP Bromo – 05/2004 (BGVN 29:05)). 2 Papandayan and Bromo volcanoes 3 Methods Papandayan is a complex stratovolcano culminating 2665 m above sea level with a base diameter of ∼ 8 km (Fig. 2) lo- SO fluxes were measured using a USB2000 ultraviolet spec- cated 45 km south–southeast of Bandung city, West Java. The trometer, and SO column amounts were retrieved by fol- edifice became well known after its 1772 eruption that caused lowing standard DOAS calibration and analysis procedures the collapse of the northeast flank, leading to a devastating (Kraus, 2006; Platt and Stutz, 2008). The spectral range of debris avalanche over 250 square kilometers that destroyed the spectrometer is 280–400 nm with a spectral resolution about 40 villages and killed nearly 3000 people (Abidin et of 0.5 nm FWHM (full width at half maximum). Light en- al., 2006). Papandayan ranks 11th out of the 13 deadliest tered the spectrometer through a telescope (8 mrad FOV) eruptions on earth (Blong, 1984). Other eruptions have been and via a fiber optic bundle. The Vispec program (http:// reported for this volcano in 1882, 1923–1927, 1942, 1993 vispect.sourceforge.net/) was used to field-track the volcanic and 2002 (Abidin et al., 2006). The latest eruption in 2002 plume. Total integration times of 3 s (exposure time 300 ms, is well detailed in Abidin et al. (2006) – about 6000 peo- 10 co-added spectra) and 1.6 s (exposure time 200 ms, 8 co- ple were evacuated. Magmatic degassing on Papandayan oc- added spectra) were applied to Papandayan and Bromo re- curs mainly in two fumarolic zones, aligned in a northwest– spectively. Reference spectra included in the non-linear fit southeasterly direction and located in a deformed, horseshoe- were obtained by convolving high-resolution SO (Bogumil shaped eastern crater (Fig. 2) (Mazot et al., 2007, 2008). et al., 2003) and O (Voigt et al., 2001) cross sections with Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2401 Table 1. SO flux contributions from Indonesian volcanoes in the global volcanic emission budgets. Authors Global SO Estimation technique Contribution from emission budget Indonesian volcanoes. −1 (Tg yr ) Kellogg et al. (1972) 1.5 SO emission budget deduced from the volume of SO contribution from 2 2 erupted lava and assuming that SO constitutes 0.5 % Indonesian volcanoes not of the erupted gas. specified. Cadle (1975) 7.5 SO emission budget deduced from the volume of SO contribution from 2 2 erupted lava and assuming that SO constitutes 2.5 % Indonesian volcanoes not of the erupted gas. specified. −1 Le Guern (1982) 5–10 SO budget estimation was based on lava density, gas 0.073 Tg yr from content and viscosity. Indonesia (only Merapi volcano was considered in this estimation). Berresheim and 15.3 SO emission budget obtained from a classification of SO contribution from 2 2 Jaeschke (1983) volcanic activities in the literature. Indonesian volcanoes not specified. Stoiber et al. (1987) 18.7 Based on 35 volcanoes monitored by COSPEC and SO contribution from questionnaire sent to volcanologists to estimate plume Indonesian volcanoes not sizes, from which SO burdens were specified. calculated. −1 Spiro et al. (1992) 19.2 SO budget estimation derived from the Volcanic 0.41 Tg yr attributed to Explosivity Index (VEI) with data from Simkin et Indonesian volcanoes. al. (1981) and as function of location (at convergent plate margin or not). For some volcanoes, estimations were derived from plume size. Andres and Kasgnoc 13 Data from TOMS and COSPEC, as well as data from Indonesian volcanoes (1998) journals, conferences and personal communication. contributed only −1 0.10 Tg yr (3 volcanoes were considered, including Merapi, Tangkuban Parahu, Bromo and Slamet). Graf et al. (1997) 34.9 SO emission budget derived from atmospheric SO emissions not specified 2 2 circulation–chemistry model. for Indonesia. However the authors indicate strong sulfate burden over the archipelago. −1 Halmer et al. (2002) 15–21 SO emission budget based on 360 explosively de- 2.1–2.6 Tg yr attributed to gassing subaerial volcanoes, of which 50 were mon- Indonesia subduction zone. itored directly by TOMS and/or COSPEC; the sulfur emission of the remaining 310 volcanoes was extrap- olated. Diehl et al. (2012) 26 SO emission budget is derived using the Volcanic SO emissions not specified 2 2 Sulfur Index (VSI) and based on 1167 volcanoes con- for Indonesian archipelago. sidered to be active in the Global Volcanism Program from 1979 to 2009. Data are replaced by specific ob- servation from TOMS and OMI when available or in some cases with COSPEC measurements and more detailed analyses from open literature. the instrument line shape. A Fraunhofer reference spectrum fit. Each spectrum position was determined from a continu- and ring spectrum, calculated in DOASIS, were also included ously recording GPS unit. Wind speeds were obtained us- in the fit. The optimum fitting windows of 302–325 nm and ing a handheld anemometer at high points, to the east of 300–320 nm for Papandayan and Bromo respectively were the Tengger caldera rim for Bromo and about 200 m above evaluated by obtaining a near random fit residual with min- the northern fumarole zone on Papandayan. On this latter imum deviation. Figures 3 and 5 show examples of the SO volcano, DOAS SO flux measurements were performed in 2 2 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 2402 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 2. Maps of the Papandayan summit and the Bromo caldera. The DOAS traverse zones are shaded in gray. The main degassing points are shown: fumarole zones on Papandayan and the active crater on Bromo. Pictures provide a synoptic view of degassing during the field measurements. walking-traverse mode (McGonigle et al., 2002). The spec- light. We estimate that the error in the column amount con- trometer was carried with the telescope pointing to the zenith tributes 0.006–0.014 to the squared variation coefficient of while walking across the northern part of the eastern crater the total flux, whilst error contributions from the distance (Fig. 2). The plume was drifting to the northwest at the time traversed perpendicular to the plume and from the assumed of measurement. A complementary USB4000 spectrometer wind direction following the approached detailed in Mather was positioned on a fixed mode, operating within the 292– et al. (2006) are 0.001–0.006 and ∼ 0.003 respectively. Note 446 nm spectral range and with 0.3 FWHM spectral reso- however that all these errors are negligible in comparison to lution. SO column amounts were retrieved using the same uncertainties in the plume speed (e.g., Stoiber et al., 1983). procedures as for the USB2000. On Bromo, access into the We assumed that the plume transport speed is conservative caldera was possible using a 4WD vehicle, so DOAS tra- throughout our measurements period with a relative error of verses were done on a vehicle (Fig. 2). During measurement, ∼ 30–35 %, consistent with Stoiber et al. (1983). the wind was from the east, forcing the plume partially above the inaccessible relief zone to the west (Fig. 2). To ensure 4 Results and discussion measurements across the entire plume, the telescope was po- sitioned with an inclination of around 30 from the zenith. The DOAS measurements obtained in this work are summa- 3.1 Errors in the SO flux measurements rized in Table 2, while Figs. 4 and 5 display plots of all tra- verses and static measurements. Non-linear fits of recorded Error in the SO flux measurements is derived from four dif- spectra under Bromo and Papandayan highlight strong SO ferent factors, including the retrieved column amount, the signals in the plume (Figs. 3 and 5) with maximum concen- distance perpendicular to the plume transport direction, the trations largely exceeding 100 ppm.m above the background angle between the assumed wind direction and the traverse level. It is therefore evident at this stage that Papandayan and path and the plume transport speed (Mather et al., 2006). Er- Bromo release SO into the atmosphere. ror in the retrieved SO column amount depends on many factors (Stutz and Platt, 1996; Hausmann et al., 1999; Kern et 4.1 Papandayan’s SO emission rate al., 2010), but we assume that the dominant error is induced by variable cloudiness that we compensate using artificial Results indicate that SO emission rate on Papandayan fluc- −1 constant dark, calculated from each recorded spectrum, in tuates between 0.4±0.1 and 2.8±0.8 t d with a mean value −1 the range of blind pixel (pixel below 290 nm) (Tsanev, 2008). of 1.4± 0.5 t d . This fluctuation is consistent with DOAS Such corrections account for dark spectrum, offset and stray static measurements (Fig. 4) where the SO column amount Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2403 Fig. 3. Example of DOAS SO fit on Papandayan. Blue lines are recorded spectra. The background spectra were acquired by pointing outside the plume. Table 2. Estimated SO emission rates for Papandayan and Bromo. Start time (UT) Mean measurement Average column State of activity Date of local time = distance from Plume amount SO flux −2 −1 Volcano during measurements measurements Traverse UT + 7 sources (km) width (km) (mg m ) (t d ) Papandayan Degassing through fumaroles 18/06/11 Trav_1 06:47:04 0.6 0.14 37 0.4± 0.1 Trav_2 06:51:03 0.5 0.11 110 1.2± 0.4 Trav_3 06:56:45 0.6 0.11 110 1.2± 0.4 Trav_4 06:59:51 0.5 0.10 114 1.2± 0.4 Trav_5 07:04:35 0.5 0.12 200 2.8± 0.8 Trav_6 07:08:11 0.5 0.11 209 2.2± 0.7 −1 Mean SO emission rate = 1.4± 0.5 t d Bromo Open vent degassing 23/06/11 Trav_1 03:11:58 2.3 0.30 49 2.4± 0.8 Trav_2 03:20:48 2.3 0.75 120 32.1± 11.2 Trav_3 03:32:50 2.3 0.14 54 0.7± 0.2 Trav_4 03:37:20 2.3 0.68 79 22.0± 7.7 Trav_5 03:49:23 2.3 0.16 30 0.7± 0.2 −1 Mean SO emission rate = 27.1± 9.5 t d The mean emission rate is deduced from traverses 2 and 4 (in bold), whose profiles are closer to the real degassing of Bromo. Traverses 1, 3 and 5 account for a small portion of the plume (see text for further detail). −1 increased progressively from ∼ 40 ppm.m to ∼ 140 ppm.m gas discharges pumping up to 0.03 kg SO s into the at- over a period of 30 min before dropping to the background mosphere. In any case, Papandayan’s SO contribution to level in the following 15 min. The SO flux increased ac- the atmosphere is relatively small compared to other vol- cordingly in traverses 1 to 5 and then decreased in tra- canic sources (Andres and Kasgnoc, 1998). Assuming that verse 6. Further measurements are required to delimit Pa- the DOAS results are representative, this volcano releases pandayan emissions better. However, it is likely that changes only about 500 tons of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere an- in Papandayan’s SO emission rate come from subsurface nually. This low SO release into the atmosphere is expected 2 2 magmatic–hydrothermal processes with regular magmatic for fumarolic-type activity. Mazot et al. (2008) provide a www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 2404 P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo Fig. 5. Example of DOAS SO fit on Bromo (left). Measurement spectra are blue. Traverse measurement profiles are shown (right). Fig. 4. Plots of traverse (above) and static (below) measurement Traverses 1, 3 and 5 did not catch the bulk concentration while tra- results obtained on Papandayan. Time axes were aligned highlight- verses 2 and 4 commenced in the plume (see text). ing the increase of SO column amounts in both static and traverse measurements. Consequently, when considering SO flux measurements for compilation of Papandayan gas chemistry, and mean SO monitoring purposes, the existence of hydrothermal pro- concentration (0.11 mol%) is significantly lower than H S cesses should be taken into account. Alternatively, H S may concentration (0.51 mol%). Assuming that these concentra- be a good candidate for monitoring as suggested by Symonds tions are representative, and using the H S / SO molar ra- et al. (2001) and Aiuppa et al. (2005). In any case, the DOAS 2 2 tio of 4.6, the H S emission rate from Papandayan can measurement results highlight the potential of SO monitor- −1 −1 ing of this fumarolically active volcano, and the 1.4 t d of be estimated at around 3.4 t d , more than twice the SO SO released into the atmosphere can henceforth be used as emission rate. According to experimental studies and ther- a baseline for future SO flux measurements. mochemical modeling of volatile partitioning between va- por and liquid in two-phase hydrothermal systems, CO is the most abundant hydrothermal gas followed by H S – 4.2 Bromo’s SO emission rate other sulfurous gases are negligible (Symonds et al., 2001; Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985; Giggenbach, 1980; Reed The SO flux measurements from Bromo vary roughly be- −1 −1 and Spycher, 1984, 1985; Spycher and Reed, 1989). The tween 0.7± 0.2 t d and 32± 11.2 t d , but unlike the Pa- strong availability of H S suggests the existence of active pandayan survey, there were no static measurements to sup- hydrothermal processes beneath Papandayan’s fumarolic ac- port this investigation. Furthermore, despite the strong signal tivity, and that a portion of the SO released from the mag- obtained in the SO fit procedure (Fig. 5), all the traverses 2 2 matic source probably sinks out by hydrolysis (4SO + 4H O were not completed (Fig. 5), and SO fluxes for traverses 1, 3 2 2 2 = H S + 3H SO and 3SO + 2H O = S + 2H SO ) (Hol- and 5 were dramatically reduced in comparison to traverses 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 land, 1965) or is trapped by other hydrothermal processes. and 4. The reason for this disparity was the inclination of the Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 2399–2407, 2013 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/13/2399/2013/ P. Bani et al.: Sulfur dioxide emissions from Papandayan and Bromo 2405 5 Conclusions We present the first DOAS SO flux estimates for Papan- dayan and Bromo, two of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia. Results indicate mean SO emission rates of −1 1.4 t d from Papandayan’s fumarolic activity and more −1 than 22–32 t d of SO released by Bromo during a de- clining eruptive phase. Results further indicate that Papan- dayan’s SO release is sustained by the regular discharge of Fig. 6. Bromo degassing observed during two different periods. In gas, although much of the SO is likely trapped by subsur- June 2011 (left), during measurement, the degassing was clearly face hydrothermal processes, leading to significant release of visible 2 km from the volcano. In May 2012, there was no plume on H S into the atmosphere. Bromo’s SO releases appear not Bromo and no SO detected by DOAS. Only a stagnate white vapor 2 2 was observed in the active crater (right). to be persistent over time. This volcano is nevertheless a ma- jor source of volcanic degassing into the atmosphere given its 6–7 yr cycle of periodic eruptive activity. In contrast, the telescope since part of the plume dispersed above the west- permanent degassing on Papandayan represents a negligible ern relief (Fig. 2). Traverses 2 and 4 commenced below the contribution of SO to the atmosphere outside eruptive pe- plume, but the relief configuration precluded a complete pro- riods. Finally, the DOAS measurements obtained on Papan- file across the plume, while traverses 1, 3 and 5 began away dayan and Bromo are very encouraging given the numerous from the plume, and the telescope inclination was not suffi- volcanoes in Indonesia whose degassing has never been eval- cient to catch the bulk plume concentration when the vehi- uated. In addition, this work establishes benchmarks for SO cle reached the relief. The outcome of these DOAS SO flux flux monitoring on both Bromo and Papandayan. measurements may not be representative of the volcano’s ac- tivity at the time of the survey. However, in the configuration described above, the measurements from traverses 2 and 4 Acknowledgements. We acknowledge technical assistance from are much closer to reality, suggesting an SO flux of more Bromo and Papandayan observatories. Field work was supported −1 than 22–32 t d . In the past, the SO emission rate of this 2 by IRD and CVGHM. We appreciate support from IFI. volcano was estimated during two eruptive periods: on 8– −1 27 March 1995 (6, 22 and 22 t d ) (GVP, 03/1995 – BGVN Edited by: A. Costa −1 Reviewed by: P. Allard and two anonymous referees 20:03) and on 14 June 2004 (200 t d ) (GVP, 05/2004 – BGVN 29:05). The SO fluxes published in Andres and Kag- noc’s (1998) well-known paper were derived from the March 1995 COSPEC measurements as no DOAS results exist prior The publication of this article to this work. Our DOAS measurements were carried out in is financed by CNRS-INSU. 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