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International Migration Decision-Making and Destination Selection Among Skilled Migrants

International Migration Decision-Making and Destination Selection Among Skilled Migrants International Migration Decision-Making and Destination Selection Among Skilled Migrants Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward Centre for Applied Cross-Cultural Research, School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand his research explored how skilled, self-selected migrants make a decision to leave their country of origin and choose a destination. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 20 pre-departure and 26 post-arrival migrants to New Zealand from the United Kingdom/Ireland, India and South Africa. A thematic analysis was conducted separately for each country’s data. For these migrants, the decision process contained three major decisions: whether, where and when to go. Regarding the question of whether to go, key factors were both intrapersonal and social. New Zealand was selected as a destination of choice due to quality of life, safety, environment, cultural similarity, job opportunities and the perception that migrants were wanted. On the question of when to go, the decision process was a negotiation between partners, and often extended family, which occurred over a long period of time. Keywords: global careers, mobility, expatriation, self-initiated expatriation Since about 3.2% of the world’s population lives out- focused and less family centred are more likely to want to side of their country of birth, amounting to about 232 move (Boneva & Frieze, 2001; Boneva et al., 1998;Boneva, million people, the phenomenon of international mi- Frieze, Ferligoj, Pauknerova, & Orgocka, 1997; Frieze et al., gration is clearly an important aspect of modern life 2004; Frieze, Hansen, & Boneva, 2006; Gibson & McKen- (United Nations, 2013). The majority of research into in- zie, 2011). Yet migration desires are both influenced by and ternational migration decision-making has studied peo- influence the social context within which the person exists. ple coming from less developed countries to more de- veloped countries; for example, Philippines–U.S. migra- Social Context in Migration tion, Nuie–New Zealand migration, and West African– In their study of Asian migrants to New Zealand, Ho and Netherlands migration (Connell, 2008;DeJong, Root, Bedford (2008) emphasised the importance of viewing Gardner, Fawcett, & Abad, 1986;Hamer, 2008). Studies of migration as a multigenerational, multinational process, people leaving first world countries are much more rare as family members often entered and left New Zealand (Benson & O’Reilly, 2009; Dashefsky, DeAmicis, Laser- to find work. This is supported by research on migra- witz, & Tabory, 1992;Stone &Stubbs, 2007;Tabor &Mil- tion networks (also termed chain migration), which views font, 2011; van Dalen & Henkens, 2007). To understand social networks in the destination as facilitators for the how the process of migration decision-making works, move (Choldin, 1973; Fawcett, 1989; Massey, Alarcon, researchers need to consider a wide range of migration Durand, & Gonsalez, 1987). Clearly, there is a social fabric streams. But what do we know of this complex and im- within which the migration decision-making process oc- portant decision that so many people are making? curs. To understand decision-making in a social context Previous studies have indicated that the process requires looking beyond the psychological research that of migration begins well before departure (Jasinskaja- focusses on the individual and into the research on the Lahti & Yijal ¨ a, ¨ 2011; Tabor & Milfont, 2011; Tartakovsky, family as a unit (Chant & Radcliffe, 1992). 2012;Yijal ¨ a ¨ & Jasinskaja-Lahti, 2010). Researchers have Demographers and economists have long consid- repeatedly linked intrapersonal factors to migration de- ered households as the base unit of migration studies cisions (Frieze & Li, 2010), meaning that the decision (Graves & Linneman, 1979;Konseiga, 2007; Mincer, 1978; essentially starts within the personality of the decision- Stark & Taylor, 1989), but relatively little work has been maker. People who are more assertive, patient, work- done on how these households negotiate the international Address for correspondence: Aidan S. Tabor, Centre for Applied Cross-Cultural Research, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] 28 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY, Volume 9, Issue 1 pp. 28–41. The Author(s) 2015. doi 10.1017/prp.2015.3 International Migration Decision-Making migration decision, with studies of internal migra- Overall, decision-making about migration appears to tion being more common (de Haas & Fokkema, 2010; be influenced by these kinds of social networks, as contacts King & Skeldon, 2010; Le, Tissington, & Budhwar, 2010; abroad can provide support to the pre-departure migrant Rabe, 2011;Tsegai, 2007). The problem is that household (Adelman, 1988;Gubhaju &DeJong, 2009;Haug, 2008; theories of migration consider a household to be com- Ryan, 2008; van Dalen & Henkens, 2007). In a study of posed of actors with equal power and agreed aims, though North Americans moving to Israel, personal contacts in this is quite often not the case, especially in cultures where the destination were a major source of informational social women have less power than men in the family decision- support during the decision-making process (Amit & Riss, making (de Haas & Fokkema, 2010;Gubhaju &DeJong, 2007). Even interactions with others via online forums can 2009;Hoang, 2011; Stecklov, Carletto, Azzarri, & Davis, be a major source of informational support and encour- 2010). agement for the move (Tabor & Milfont, 2013). What is In addition, research has also shown that part- unclear is the extent to which migration networks influ- ners can have differing goals in the migration process ence the choice of destination for a potential migrant, par- (Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Pedraza, 1991) and that con- ticularly those who are highly skilled and have the option sensus building is often done through discussion (Adams, of multiple destinations. 2004; De Jong, Warland, & Root, 1998). Not only are couples involved in the decision, but also others, such Reasons for International Moves as extended family, children and friends, can have in- fluence in the decision-making process (Adams, 2004). Economic theories suggest the reasons are purely finan- Howfamilyisdefinedisakeyaspectofthistypeofre- cial (Boyle, 2009), but research from New Zealand has search. Though individualists tend to see family as pri- already found ample evidence for non-financial aspects, marily being the nuclear family (parents and their mi- such as environment, as motivation for migrants (Depart- nor children), collectivists are more inclusive of grand- ment of Labour, 2009). The key reasons that migrants parents, adult siblings, cousins, aunts and uncles in their choose to leave their country of origin are recognised thinking (Georgas et al., 2001). As described in Adams’ as being economic, political, cultural, family, and career (2004) research, the role of these extended family mem- factors (Carr, Inkson, & Thorn, 2005). Many studies of bers in the migration decision is also important. Similarly, migration decision-making have focused on these rea- Mulder (2007) argued that family context is critical to mi- sons for the move, usually categorising them as push/pull gration decisions even in individualist countries. British or macro/micro factors (Anas & Wickremasinghe, 2010; pre-departure migrants to New Zealand reported a drop Bushin, 2009; De Jong & Gardner, 1981;Haug, 2008;Kon- in levels of social support from extended family when they tuly, Smith, & Heaton, 1995; Schoorl et al., 2000). Push informed the family of the planned move (Tabor & Mil- and pull factors respectively focus on evaluations of cer- font, 2012). But nowhere is the extended family likely tain characteristics in the source and destination coun- to be as influential as in collectivist cultures, as evi- tries (e.g., crime). As an example of the importance of denced by the continuing strong relationships, both fi- pull factors, results of a longitudinal survey showed that nancial and social, of migrants from countries such as the main reasons reported for selecting New Zealand as Vietnam (Thai, 2012). This is also demonstrated in Indian a destination were: relaxed pace of life/lifestyle (44%), rural–urban internal migration, which has been charac- climate or clean green environment (40%), and a better terised as family decision-making, wherein the head of future for children (39%; Department of Labour, 2009). the household (the eldest male) makes the decision about But there was also some variability in reasons reported by which family members are to migrate (Bhattacharyya, migration stream. For example, migrants from the United 1985). Kingdom/Ireland were most likely to give ‘relaxed pace of Massey’s work on the pattern of Mexico–U.S. immigra- life’ and ‘climate/clean green environment’ as their rea- tion sheds light on the importance of other social networks sons. that extend beyond family boundaries, including friend- As mentioned above, social context, and in particu- ship and community ties (Massey, 1999; Massey et al., lar, contacts at the destination can also function as pull 1987). Scholars have recognised that having connections factors. In the year to February 2015, more than 47,000 in a destination facilitates the transition between coun- people arrived in New Zealand on residency or work visas try of origin and destination, particularly in areas such as (Statistics New Zealand, 2015). What were the reasons that employment and housing (Boyd, 1989; Castles & Miller, drew them here? Findings from the New Zealand gov- 2003; MacDonald & MacDonald, 1964). These social net- ernment’s Immigration Survey Monitoring Programme, works are composed of both kin and friendship connec- which tracked responses from 8,000 migrants from the tions and tend to become self-sustaining over time (de skilled, family and work visa stream, reported that just over Haas, 2010). Similarly, a panel study of migration into the a third came to New Zealand to be with family, partner European Union found that cultural and historic ties, as or friends (Ministry of Business Innovation & Employ- well as social networks, were strongly linked to destination ment, 2012). This migration stream is a mixed category (Pedersen, Pytlikova, & Smith, 2008). that could include chain migration, trailing spouses, those JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 29 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward with New Zealand partners, as well as family reunification. options of destinations, how do they select a country to In effect, it is so broad that it reveals relatively little about move to? what specific motivations are driving inward migration. However, it was also reported that 13% of migrants gave Overview relaxed pace of life, and 11% listed environment/landscape as their main reason for coming to New Zealand. Ability What can make a person move from just thinking about to get a good job was also listed by 11% of the migrants. migrating to actually going? When many possible destina- Thus, numerous factors have been identified as reasons tions offer similar benefits, how do migrants choose New to move, but having reasons is not the same as acting on Zealand to move to? Thus far, research has rarely ventured those reasons. into the pre-departure period to explore the process of There is a lack of clarity around how people shift from decision-making among international migrants, particu- wanting to move internationally to actually doing so. Af- larly using a qualitative methodology. Even more rare are ter conducting a nationally representative 5-year longitu- studies that consider destination selection among skilled dinal study of Dutch nationals with intentions to move migrants who have the most choices about where to set- internationally, van Dalen and Henkens (2012)observed tle. In sum, the purpose of this research is to (a) explore that ‘moving from intentions to behaviour is largely unex- how people make a decision to leave their country of ori- plained’ (p. 11). Previous studies have highlighted that the gin, and (b) investigate how they select a destination. To pre-departure period can be long and tedious (Jasinskaja- accomplish this, we conducted a qualitative study using Lahti & Yijal ¨ a, ¨ 2011; Tabor & Milfont, 2011). Migration thematic analysis to identify similarities and differences between migrants to New Zealand. decision-making has been described as a series of deci- sions, rather than a once and done decision that char- acterises much of the literature on decision-making (De Methods Jong, 1999;Sly &Wrigley, 1986). Thus, our first research Sample question is howdopeoplemakeadecision to leavetheir country of origin? Inclusion criteria followed two steps. Countries were first selected for inclusion based on number of visa approvals, with the top five source countries for skilled/business ap- Destination Selection plications approved in 2009 ranked from highest to lowest: Destination selection usually falls within the realm of United Kingdom, South Africa, Philippines, China, India tourism studies (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;Crompton, (Department of Labour, 2010). In addition, economic di- 1992; Crompton & Ankomah, 1993). It is also critically versity was considered as it is an important consideration important, yet largely ignored, in international migration in economic theories of migration decision-making. The research (Roseman, 1983). Part of the migration choice United Kingdom/Ireland was selected for high wages and is the elimination of what is potentially a long list of al- South Africa for similar wages to New Zealand, and India ternative countries. New Zealand sees itself as competing as a low-wage sending country (Bureau of Labor Statistics, for skilled migrants (Hawthorne, 2011;Ho, 2001), but the 2012a, 2012b; International Labour Organization, 2013). extent to which a potential migrant considers multiple The United Kingdom and Ireland are combined in all Im- countries as destinations before selecting New Zealand is migration New Zealand statistics, so these countries were as yet unexplored. Certainly, skilled migrants have choices considered as a single group in this study, though they are in destinations, as their educational and professional back- separate nations. ground gives them the access to legally work in a variety Following ethical approval granted by the School of of countries. Psychology Human Ethics Committee, interview partici- Even so, there are external limitations that are a factor pants were sought from online forums for migrants to New in destination selection, such as visa requirements, health Zealand, blogs, and through snowball sampling. Snow- requirements and financial resources. It is important to ball sampling was particularly successful for the South recognise that even though a destination is open to ac- African sample, but the posting of a request for partic- cepting migrants, they may be highly selective in whom ipants in online forums for migrants to New Zealand they allow to enter. The United States is perhaps the most garnered more than the required number of participants restrictive, but Canada, Australia and New Zealand all use from all countries. In total, 20 pre-departure (43.5%) and selection criteria based on skills, education, and character 26 post-arrival migrants were included in the study. Fif- (Hawthorne, 2011). It is for this reason that the present teen participants were originally from South Africa, 15 study focuses on skilled migration, rather than family re- from India, and 16 from the United Kingdom/Ireland. Of unification or refugee movement, because skilled migrants the pre-departure sample, the time to departure was ex- have the most choices in the migration decision-making tremely variable: people intended to move to New Zealand process. However, even within this group, we recognise as early as one month from the date of the interview to that choice does exist only within the boundaries created years later. Of those already living in New Zealand, the by policy and personal circumstance. Still, for those with mean time since arrival was 3.5 years (SD = 35 months, 30 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making range 6 months to 13 years). Seventy-five per cent had independently of the overall themes of the data. Data were been in the country less than 5 years. analysed according to steps outlined by Braun and Clarke There were 26 women (56.6%) and 20 men inter- (2006). Beyond the recommendations from Braun and viewed. The mean age of the total sample was 38.81 Clarke, additional techniques were used both in the de- (SD = 8.3, range 27 to 61). Mean family size was 3.1 velopment and verification of the themes. Though the (SD = 1.6, range 1 to 6). Eighty per cent of the sample analysis of qualitative research is normally conducted be- was in a committed relationship, and most couples were hind closed doors, in what the community under study in heterosexual relationships. The majority (82.6%) held might view as a mystical process, Morse, Barrett, Mayan, a bachelor’s degree or higher. Forty-four per cent had vis- Olson, and Spiers (2002) argue for including additional ited New Zealand prior to their move. Though it was more perspectives as a constructive (during the process) versus common for the UK/Irish and Indian sample, a total of evaluative (post hoc) approach, as a means to increasing 58.7% had lived outside of their country of origin pre- reliability and validity in qualitative research. Therefore, a viously. At the time of the interview, 76% intended to second coder assisted with both the refinement of the ini- remain permanently in New Zealand. The skilled migrant tial themes in the South African part of the study, which category visa was the most common (82.6%), though ar- was the first to be analysed, and to confirm themes in rival with student, work, and business visas were also rep- the India and UK/Irish parts of the study. Apart from resented. Career fields included education, medicine, IT, this formal second coder, the initial themes were also dis- sports, engineering, and hospitality. The Indian sample cussed with the co-authors to clarify and arrive at the final was overwhelmingly IT focused. themes. By increasing collaboration and auditing during the analysis, the coherence in the interpretation of the data is correspondingly increased (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, Procedures 2009). All interviews were conducted between July and Octo- Another technique we used in the development and ber 2011. Interviews were conducted using videoconfer- verification of the themes was Miles and Huberman’s encing on Skype, or over the telephone, depending on (1994) tactic for testing or confirming findings: getting the physical location and preference of the participants. feedback from participants and other community mem- All interviews were digitally audio-recorded and then bers. This is similar to Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (1998) transcribed. The mean interview time was 40 minutes member checks, whereby people from the community un- (SD = 20 minutes, range10minutes to 1hour17minutes), der study give feedback on conclusions. They perceive this plus non-recorded debriefing. The study as a whole had as the single most important check of credibility that a 24 hours and 44 minutes of recorded data in the corpus. researcher can utilise. Thus, a final report of findings was All names listed are pseudonyms, chosen from popular prepared, corresponding to the respective results sections baby names in the respective country. for each country, and sent out to participants from the Interviews began with an introduction that included country as well as other community members who did a brief explanation of the first author’s own background not participate in the study, but who were gathered from as a migrant to New Zealand, to acknowledge that the personal networks or from contacts made during the in- researcher’s experience, assumptions, values and cultural terview process. All countries had more people offer to background are part of the reflexive experience of con- be interviewed than space allowed, and thus several of ducting qualitative research (Gearing, 2004;Shaw, 2010; these people were contacted to give community feedback. Tufford & Newman, 2012). The interview schedule had 10 All were invited to comment and to disagree. Overall, the questions, including ‘Tell me the story of how you came comments confirmed the findings, and where they di- to New Zealand’ (post arrival) or ‘Tell me how you started verged, usually by adding more material or correcting an thinking about moving to New Zealand’ (pre-departure). error such as spelling, have been incorporated into the At the end of each interview, participants were debriefed findings. and given the chance to ask questions. Participants were In the initial round of open coding (highlighting any compensated for their time with a food (supermarket relevant portions of text and assigning them a code) and vouchers for those within New Zealand) or book voucher the second round of closed coding (identifying any text (Amazon.com for pre-departure participants). After the that fits within the identified codes), 110 codes were iden- interviews were transcribed, participants were offered the tified in the South African dataset, 70 for UK/Ireland, chance to read and comment on their transcripts, and 17% and 46 for India. Initially, a total of 1,868 extracts were of participants did so. These comments were added to the coded. After refining the themes to check for internal ho- corpus before analysis. mogeneity and external heterogeneity, the final dataset in- cluded 1,564 coded extracts in 43 themes and subthemes. Data Analysis As shown in Table 1, there was substantial overlap between themes and subthemes between the countries. Themes re- Nvivo 9 was used for tracking each code and theme, as well lating to settlement, degree to which expectations were as mapping the themes. Each country was analysed sepa- rately to allow the country’s codes and themes to emerge met, and the decision to onward or return migrate were JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 31 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward Table 1 Themes and Subthemes for South African, Indian and UK/Irish Samples N (interviews) N (extracts) % Country dataset South Africa Quality of life 13 69 10.1 Decision-making 12 43 6.2 Catalyst 11 22 3.2 Inhibitors/promoters 12 38 5.5 Technology 12 24 3.5 Intrapersonal factors 13 61 8.9 Social Factors 13 147 21.5 Settlement 13 80 11.7 Country comparison 1 1 1 Perceptions of South Africa 13 55 8.1 Perceptions of New Zealand 13 87 12.7 Other countries considered 12 41 6 Cultural similarities 8 15 2.1 United Kingdom/Ireland Decision-making 14 54 12.4 Couples decision-making 10 33 7.6 Micro factors 8 18 4.2 Adventure/Risk 7 14 3.2 Work 14 35 8 Social factors 11 19 4.4 Extended Family 12 16 3.7 Connections in New Zealand 10 14 3.2 Children 8 19 4.4 Macro factors 0 0 0 Environment 15 54 12.4 Lifestyle 13 41 9.5 Friendliness 14 22 5.1 Cultural similarity 12 20 4.6 Crime/terrorism 6 12 2.8 Cost of living 6 7 1.6 Settlement 15 55 12.7 India Opportunity 12 51 11 Work 13 87 19 Lifestyle 9 37 8 Social aspects of migration 12 33 7 Extended family 11 29 6 Partners decision-making 8 21 5 Cultural norms 10 21 5 Destinations 11 49 11 Return or onward migration 12 30 7 New Zealand 11 21 5 Environment 11 32 7 Destination in New Zealand 9 11 2 Settlement 10 26 6 identified, but not reported in the present study due to on the themes and subthemes that were present within relevance to the research questions. each country’s data, including: quality of life, opportunity (career, financial and educational reasons), environment, safety, welcome, and social connections. Finally, to de- Results scribe how the decision of when to go was managed by the Based on the literature reviewed above, we expected to participants, we will discuss the concept of a catalyst and find that migrants would discuss their decision of whether the overall length of the decision process. Within each of to migrate and where to migrate. We did not expect the these sections, differences between countries will also be extent to which the timing of the decision, or when to highlighted. migrate, would be of critical importance. In the following section, we will focus on the similarities between coun- Whether to Migrate tries as they relate to this three-part process. This will address key players in the decision of whether to migrate For nearly all of the migrants interviewed, the initial step (an individual, a couple, the extended family). In the ques- in the decision process was to assess whether or not to tion of selecting among destinations, we will concentrate leave their country of origin. This entailed a number of 32 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making factors, the most central of which were intrapersonal, but these negative feelings prior to the move made settling social factors, such as the opinion of intimate partners and difficult. Not all families that differed in initial migration extended family members, were also key in the decision. desire remained so polarised. Some trailing spouses were quickly convinced of the benefits of the move and became Intrapersonal factors. Several participants highlighted enthusiastic supporters of the plan. how risky the migration choice was, particularly for those who had not visited New Zealand or did not have a Extendedfamilies. The issue of extended family members’ job waiting for them. Brandon compared himself to his roles in the migration decision was complex and varied by brother, who remained in the United Kingdom: ‘We are family as well as country. For some couples, like Kate and extremely different personality wise. I’m not sure he would Sam, the extended families were divided: ‘We’ve got my even take that kind of risk, because it’s quite a big leap that family supporting us and his saying no.’ For Andries, ex- we are taking, to just go without a job and just go for it. tended family in South Africa were having an influence on But I’m not sure my brother would ever do that. We are the timing of the move: ‘With my parents, they’re getting very, very different in that respect.’ pretty old now so . . . that for me is probably the major thing holding me back.’ Kate, a South African, is a novelty-seeker: ‘I see myself as an adventurer, I love the challenge, I like to try new Indian families had the most central role for extended things.’ This is in contrast to her partner, Sam, who is family members. For most of the Indian migrants, parents somewhat risk-averse: ‘I definitely see it as an unknown, were a very important part of the decision-making pro- and I’m not sure if things are going to work out. You cess itself. Durva, who is unmarried, has been encouraged know, I’m only making sure that things are going to be by her parents: ‘They are really supportive and they are 100% and work out it’s fine, but this is very risky as far as helping me find my way over.’ Geeta described how her I’m concerned and you don’t know what’s going to happen father encouraged her to support her husband’s plans to when you get there, how things are going to pan out.’ move abroad, thereby convincing her to go. Intimate partners. There were many gradations of desire I was a bit upset when he said we are going to immigrate and to migrate that were expressed by the two partners. Some we are going to New Zealand.. . . I said we are happy here, why couples were in agreement on the move nearly from the do we want to move? So when I was talking to my parents, my father was the one who insisted I encourage my husband . . . start. Grace, a South African educator, and her partner what my father said was, ‘Look if he wants to do something you ‘were absolutely in it together’. But for many of the other do it now when your kids are young, when we are here to help couples from all the countries, there was a driver who had youifyou need anyhelp...thisisthe best time to do it,to a stronger to desire to migrate than their trailing partner. explore new ideas and if you think you are not settled if you These drivers convinced their partners, as Brandon’s story don’t like there you can always come back.’. . . And because of illustrated: the promising words I said to my husband, okay let’s go. We have been together for four years and we have been talking Her narrative illustrated the collective nature of the mi- about it a lot and we do have long conversations about it and gration decision for Indian migrants, with a much greater because it’s obviously not just about making me happy, it’s about role for extended family members than was evident in her as well. So we have got to make sure that it’s the right move British or South African families. for her also and if she ever said that she didn’t want to go, she was adamant that she changed her mind that we would still consider Where to Migrate that seriously and I would have to give up on the New Zealand dream, but I guess it works for both of us at the moment. Nearly all participants considered where they would move to as the second major decision in the process. The strate- Trailing spouses, who are initially lower in the desire gies they employed were largely conjunctive, considering to move, often influenced the timing of the migration. elements such as language, safety and job opportunities as Logan, a South African engineer, described the timing of a way to eliminate possible destinations. his move: ‘I think it was my idea in the beginning and quite a while back, about 10 years ago, I wanted to leave Quality of life. Theconstructsofpaceoflife, qualityoflife, already and my partner didn’t think so . . . she was to- work/life balance and lifestyle were very much entwined. tally against immigration at first, but it was her idea the ‘The city itself, the way everything worked, the quality of second time round and of course mine as well.’ These life there. I kept on saying that all the time there, the quality differences of migration desire complicate the process, of life,’ Reece, a self-employed South African, said of his engendering lengthy negotiations for most families, and trip to New Zealand. ‘Peace of mind is a major thing for emotional costs for both partners. Hannah moved to New me, even more than money,’ explained Lokajit. Jihan, an Zealand because her partner wanted to, but the process IT professional from Tamil Nadu, said that ‘quality of life’ of leaving the United Kingdom was extremely emotional was his top reason for leaving. Lifestyle was one of Rishi’s forher:‘Iwasn’treallyhappy at all...Iwasreallyde- main reasons: ‘In India, even if you make a lot of money pressed. No, I found it really difficult.’ Hannah was not you cannot guarantee a certain lifestyle. So I thought of unique in the painful experience of migrating to a coun- moving to a Western country, for a better lifestyle, for my try that she was not at all pleased to be moving to, and kid.’ JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 33 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward In sum, there was a strong desire to ‘downshift’ and was perceived as having a Goldilocks climate, not too hot have a less hurried life. Several participants brought up and not too cold. work–life balance as a goal. Lokajit’s friend moved to New Accessibility of nature and cleanliness were also impor- Zealand before him, and told him about the difference in tant environmental attractions. On his first visit, Tyler, a work–lifebalance:‘He wouldjusttellusabout the work South African, was awed by ‘the place itself, the beauty of culture, it’s only working like 8 or 9 hours a day, and we New Zealand, that was the first feeling, like amazing sight. used to work 10 or 12 hours a day in India.’ Naadir, an IT Because you see photographs and stuff but you don’t re- professional from Kerala, was of the opinion that ‘money, alise what it is or what it looks like before you get here. It it doesn’t really compensate for the lack of work/life bal- was just amazing.’ Andries also noted the natural environ- ance’. Even in the United Kingdom, work and commuting ment: ‘It’s close to mountains, you’re close to the sea, the consumes life. Ben expressed his frustration with lack of outdoors, which for me is important.’ Kumari’s husband, time for leisure activities: ‘In the UK [it] is like you are up who moved to New Zealand before her, described it for early, you go to work, come home and that’s about it.’ her: ‘He told me that pollution is not a problem, very clean roadsand notlotsoftraffic...and averybeautiful place.’ Safety. ‘Because the crime is not only theft, it is violence. Quite often it will be more than just your things that are Cultural similarity. When potential migrants consider taken,’ warned Sam, a South African engineer and father. destination countries, one of the first criteria they use Every South African participant discussed safety as pivotal is cultural similarity, starting with language. ‘I was con- to the move. Though India has its own terrorism and crime sidering moving to English speaking countries because I threats, this did not come up in the interviews. Crime was didn’t want to learn a new language for moving to a new an issue for UK participants, including Harry: ‘It was right country. So I was thinking of moving to either Canada, on our doorstep, the crime . . . just the perception really, UK, Australia or New Zealand,’ said Rishi. When migrants just seems to be getting worse.’ are attempting to eliminate destination options, language is a common and relatively straightforward method. Opportunity. Indian participants stated that jobs, usu- Not just culturally similar, New Zealand is reminiscent ally for both partners, were an important factor in both of an ideal Britain that does not exist anymore. ‘It’s kind the ability to move abroad and in the appeal of moving of like England used to be when I was growing up,’ said abroad. Rishi, a young father from Tamil Nadu said that Ben. Harry described New Zealand as: ‘. . . almost like it to develop a career, ‘the IT professional in India has got used to be here 35, 40 years ago in the UK. So it’s got to be to go abroad’. For several of the participants, part of the abetterplace.’ appeal of working overseas was to gain a higher salary. Sport was another important aspect of culture that Durva clarified her reasons for the move: ‘I could prob- helped attract the attention of the migrants. Rugby has ably earn a lot more outside of India, just think of the proven that it is more than just a sport, it is a way to exchange rate.’ Others strongly denied salary or money change lives, as illustrated by Tyler’s comment: ‘I suppose was motivating their move. Rishi said: ‘I’m having a good it started with the rugby of course. You’ve heard of the life in India. We have plenty of money here.’ Dakshi, an rugby. For me, either Australia or New Zealand, because engineer from Tamil Nadu, explained how his priorities their cultures are the same as South Africa. We love the had changed over time: ‘When I moved initially [to the same things, we do the same stuff and that’s why I didn’t United States], yes, money was the main reason and then consider any other country.’ Cricket was also mentioned, after gaining so many years of experience . . . the money particularly by Indian migrants. you can earn in the States or anywhere abroad, you can almost get the same amount of money these days in India.’ Welcome. ‘Initially I was looking for countries that were It was clear that money was one factor among many that welcoming migrants,’ explained Jihan. Naadir selected his influenced the decision to move. For British and South destination the same way: ‘New Zealand seemed more African migrants, having the opportunity for a job was migrant-friendly.’ The receptivity of the destination is ex- a factor that was considered in the decision, but career pressed in both the availability of visas and the reception development was often a secondary factor. that migrants receive in the country. Half of the Indian par- Environment. Climate is one of the leading ways that mi- ticipants specifically mentioned racism as having an im- grants eliminated options from their potential list of des- pact on their decision-making. Australia’s violence against tinations. For Georgia’s family, like many of the others Indian migrants has clearly made some people stay away. from the United Kingdom, ‘the cold crossed off Canada’. ‘We thought of going to Australia but . . . because it was ‘Australia, no, just because it’s too hot for us. We don’t a time that kind of racist incidents were going on. Indi- like the heat very much,’ said Gwyn, another UK migrant. ans had gotten beaten up and all that stuff was going on Indian migrants also were concerned with the climate. in Australia,’ Dakshi explained. The perception that New Farzana said, ‘I heard about New Zealand, we heard about Zealand wants migrants was a crucial aspect of its selec- the climatic conditions, it was very good because, we both tion as a destination. Availability of visas, the clarity of the can’t stay in a very hot climate.’ In contrast to Australia’s Immigration New Zealand website and the expectation of sweltering heat and Canada’s snowy winters, New Zealand a friendly host population were all part of the judgment. 34 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making Social connections. Migrants’ initial idea to come to New had made the decision a month prior to the interview and Zealand, rather than another country, very often came her ticket for departure was only 4 weeks away. Ben, a UK from a social connection to the country. Having friends in teacher, had desired an international move for years: ‘It’s New Zealand influenced Kumari’s husband: been my mission since I went to Australia when I was 16 to move over that side of the world.’ Timing can also be He had his friends in New Zealand. That’s why he wanted to influenced by completely external factors such as health, come there, they are friends from his childhood. They told him jobs, schooling and visas, as Sam, who is still in South that it’s a very nice country, very beautiful place and so many Africa, explained: ‘So it was basically 2008 that we decided tourists visit there and they play the same sports, so that’s why he was really excited to go there. to try and which was when the global economic doom hit.’ Chain migration was a factor for many of the migrants, particularly those from South Africa and the United Discussion Kingdom who had extended family members already liv- The purpose of this research was to explore how people ing in New Zealand, though for most, the connections make a decision to leave their country of origin and how were distant (i.e., great-uncle, second cousins). In the they select New Zealand as a destination. For the South Indian sample, very few had family members living in African, Indian and British migrants, the decision pro- New Zealand, but many had friends from their schooling. cess was composed of three distinct parts. By and large, Reece, a pre-departure South African, said: ‘We have very people first made the decision of whether, then where to good friends there.. . .We grew up together; we used to migrate, and finally when to go. Nearly all participants race carts and do all kinds of crazy things. They immi- had already exhibited long-term sustained effort to realise grated 14 years ago. We’ve always stayed in touch.’ Tegan, their migration plans; all perceived it as having a level of a South African businesswoman, has a pre-formed social uncertainty and risk (though there were individual differ- network that creates a ‘support structure because you’ve ences in comfort level with the risk), and all negotiated got all these people you know’. the decision with partners and/or close family members. The selection criterion for destinations was also remark- When to Migrate ably similar. Clearly, there is a consistent message that After the decision of where to settle was made, migrants New Zealand sells, as those who come here are essentially usually focused on selecting the right time to go. This drawn to the same features (e.g., quality of life, environ- could be a drawn-out process, as the negotiation between ment, feeling welcome). family members was often lengthy. Thus, the process was first for there to be interest, from The catalyst. ‘I think the final straw was when we were at least one partner, followed by investigations of possible burgled when my son and myself were alone in the house destinations. Self-selected migration stems from intraper- and they were in the house while we were sleeping. That sonal factors, such as the desire for adventure and novelty. was the final straw for me,’ said Tegan. The catalyst theme For some migrants, particularly in the case of South Africa, relates to the events that crystallised the decision from an external events were conceptualised as a tipping point or amorphous desire to leave into action to make that desire last straw, as has been found previously (Du Toit, 2003; a reality. Not all catalysts related to violence or negative Visser, 2007). Yet these external events, or catalysts, do events. Carmen, a South African computer specialist, re- not cause a move. A catalyst is an external influence that cently fell in love with a New Zealander: the migrant perceives as spurring action, but the event in and of itself would not have the same impact if the New Zealand jumped to the top of my list, I may not have thought person was not already considering a move. The catalyst about New Zealand, I may have gone to Australia before I met interacts with an existing situation to move the person him, but now after having learned about New Zealand and all from a state of considering moving, into acting on their that cool stuff you can do there. I’m thinking why didn’t I think aboutitbefore? desire. If a person reacts to a catalyst, inhibitors and promot- Length of the decision process. Ultimately, the migration ers become important in the decision of whether or not decision occurs within the context of time, which may to migrate to a certain destination. Triandis (1977) used span months or years. When asked at what point he started the term facilitating factors to describe a similar concept. considering migration, Eka, an engineer from Maharash- Some factors can make the move easier, such as a career tra explained: that is highly portable or a job opportunity in the desti- The roots go way back at the time when I was a child, when I nation country. These factors alone do not make people used to think what it would be like, I used to wonder what it migrate, but they grease the wheels to make the transition would be like to live in a different country. Although I had no from simply wanting to go, to actually leaving, easier. In- background and no one to guide me in that, I still fancied those hibiting factors include having a trailing spouse who does types of parts [more developed countries]. not want to move, health issues, having a less supportive Some families related that they had been considering mi- extended family, and having fewer career options. If a per- gration for more than 10 years, whereas one participant son is not predisposed to migrate, facilitating influences JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 35 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward (e.g., availability of visas, job opportunities) have little one person in the study was migrating to New Zealand effect. purely because they had a job offer; all others were seek- ing to move to New Zealand and therefore looked for A negotiated decision. This research has supported pre- a job before or after arrival. This concept of work as a vious findings on how families make migration decisions way to facilitate a desired move was also found in in- together (Adams, 2004), and expanded the understand- ternal migration studies in the United Kingdom (Boyle, ing of the role of extended families in the decision. All of Halfacree, & Robinson, 1998). the countries had themes that included the issue of how If a single idea can encapsulate what all of these mi- differences in migration desire were negotiated between grants are seeking, it is an improvement in quality of life. partners. Quality of life, in the form of lifestyle, pace of life and Among all nationalities, there were examples of trailing work–life balance was a prominent theme for all three spouses agreeing to a move that was against their own countries. Inglehart (1997) found that in a society that wishes, purely to make their partner happy, or because had reached a high level of material wealth, people tend to they felt the children would be better off. This has also start focusing more on immaterial aspects, such as qual- been noted in German migrants to New Zealand (Burgelt, ¨ ity of life. In previous research, lifestyle migration had Morgan, & Pernice, 2008). Drivers in this study discussed a quality similar to retirement migration, a seeking of ‘self-induced’ pressure to make the move a success, which leisure pursued by those who could afford not to work is similar to previous findings (Tabor & Milfont, 2012). (Benson & O’Reilly, 2009). Yet the migrants in the present Rubin (2013) found that men were more likely to be the study, who very often did give lifestyle as a reason for their driving force in decisions to migrate to Australia. In this move, were clearly planning to work upon arrival. One In- study, many of the women were more enthusiastic about dian participant referred to seeking ‘a more balanced life’ the move than their partner, though, as with male trailing and this is a very good description of what these lifestyle spouses, many began in a less receptive state to the move. migrants were searching for. A satisfying career, but bal- Although trailing spouses have been discussed extensively anced with time for leisure and access to nature, were the in the academic literature (Adams, 2004; Bielby & Bielby, key qualities that the migrants pursued. 1992;Harvey, 1998; Tabor & Milfont, 2012), this study found that the concept of a trailing spouse should be less categorical and more situational. This fluidity in migration Same, Same But Different: How Migrants Select a Destination desire is an important consideration for further research. Migrants did not consider an exhaustive list of every pos- sible destination country. Most started from a short list of Social networks. Though some of the UK and South possibilities, and this list was influenced by family, friends African migrants had social networks through kinship ties and media. Attractive aspects that led to the selection of in New Zealand, it was clear that this was not the reason for the move. Unlike research with other migrant groups New Zealand as the destination included welcome, cul- (Massey, 2004; Palloni et al., 2001), there was minimal tural similarity and environment. expectation that social capital would increase the chances Migrants wanted. New Zealand was viewed as hospitable of finding jobs or housing. It may be that skilled migrants to migrants, which has been supported by previous re- have less need of these support systems than do unskilled search (Ward & Masgoret, 2008;Ward, Masgoret,& migrants who arrive at their destination with very limited Vauclair, 2011). It was also seen as accessible, in that the financial resources. migration policies were open enough to allow legal entry. The situation of some extended family members being The higher threshold for visas that Australia imposes, and supportive while others were firmly against the move was the complicated system varying by state were seen as in- also very common. The main exception to this was India, dications that Australia has less desire for migrants. The where some participants said that their extended family United States and the United Kingdom also had much members were as important to the decision as the couple more strict policies of entry, and it is this openness that (or individual) themselves. Research with Irish migrants helped create a path of least resistance to New Zealand. has also shown that extended family can have a strong role, particularly in destination selection even in individualistic Cultural similarity. Aspects of culture have previously cultures (Ryan, 2008, 2009). In the Indian sample, not been demonstrated as part of the internal migration pro- all extended family were supportive, particularly of New cess, as Mormons reported that their move to the U.S. Zealand as a destination, instead encouraging migrants to state of Utah was driven by religious as well as family mo- go to places with more social networks to support them tives (Kontuly et al., 1995). The present study went fur- (such as Canada, Australia or the United States). ther, finding that the cultural characteristics of a nation Migration as opportunity. Work was a subtheme for both were key factors in destination selection. Despite many of UK and Indian migrants; however, it was much more the migrants speaking other languages, English language prevalent in the India dataset (19% vs. 8%). In South was the first criterion used by most migrants as a con- Africa, it was one of many intrapersonal factors that facil- junctive strategy, thereby ruling out all potential destina- itated migration, rather than a reason for the move. Only tions where English is not the language of business. More 36 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making general cultural similarities, such as sports, were also im- of each country’s part of the study was large by qualitative portant selection criteria for migrants. research standards (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009)but not large enough to draw inferential conclusions, being a Environment. From the perspective of destination selec- small, non-random sample. tion, environment is one of the best-selling features of New Within the New Zealand context, there was a limited Zealand. Though these migrants came from a range of cli- selection of English-speaking sending countries (United mate zones, all viewed the relatively mild New Zealand Kingdom, India and South Africa) included in the sam- climate positively. Migrants had considered but ruled out ple, when the diversity of migrants is vast. This selection Canada because it is too cold and Australia because it is has likely meant that cultural similarity was an impor- too hot. Even Indian migrants sometimes saw Australia tant destination selection criterion, when for many other as too warm, though they were also concerned that they sending countries this may not be a factor. Future stud- might be too cold in New Zealand, and thus favoured ies with participants from non-English speaking countries migration to the northern part of North Island where the are recommended. weather is more tropical. The sentiment that Canada is too Psychology tends to be bound by an individualist ten- cold and Australia is too hot but New Zealand is just right dency: it puts priority on individual decisions while fail- echoes the ‘Goldilocks Effect’ that planetary scientists use ing to appreciate that important real world decisions are to describe ideal climates. essentially collective when the decision-makers are in a Beyond temperature, New Zealand’s scenery and ac- committed relationship, or part of a family that relies on cess to nature were attractions for all nationalities. Pos- parents, grandparents, children and even siblings in the itive evaluations of the environment were very much in decision-making process. The present study included nu- line with research on place attractiveness in the migra- merous stories of how the couples had to reach a decision tion decision (Ewers, 2007; Li, Holm, & Lindgren, 2009; together, and particularly for Indian families, how impor- Niedomysl, 2010). The mild climate, beautiful scenery, ac- tant the role of the extended family was in the decision. cessibility of nature and pollution-free reputation of the Practitioners working with migrant families may benefit country were key draws. from this deeper understanding of what drives migration and the lengthy negotiation process that it entails for many Time in the Migration Decision partners. Additionally, policy-makers should be aware of In the South African dataset there was a clear and immedi- both the decision-making process and how marketing, ate catalyst for the move from almost all the participants, even that aimed at tourists, influences it. Finally, theories whereas for the other countries the process seemed to be must address how the decision to migrate is not only com- a gradual realisation that the time for the move was right, prised of three main choices (whether, where and when) usually because of life stage. For all of the countries, most but also how these are each situated within a cultural and people seemed to be ‘primed’ to move, just waiting for social context. the opportunity to open for them to actually leave. The This study elucidated the decision-making process of timing of the migration itself is not widely discussed in self-selected migrants, raising awareness of how this pro- the research literature; it has been called the forgotten cess can be influenced. Essentially there is a pool of well- dimension (Shotter, 1984), though some studies have ad- qualified migration candidates who are at this moment dressed how migration fits in the lifespan such as the case looking for a destination. Thus, there is no need to con- of retirement migration (Bolzman, Fibbi, & Vial, 2006). vince people to migrate; there is only a need for countries What was clear in the present study was that when to move to highlight how they can satisfy the needs of the migrants, was an important and distinct decision, and one that was and to assure them that they are indeed wanted. often influenced by external factors. Even for those who had a willing partner, migrants spoke about the frustra- tion of changing visa regulations in potential destinations. Endnote The global economic downturn had a strong impact on 1 During 2009–2010 there were more than 100 reported in- international migration flows (Green & Winters, 2010; cidents of attacks against Indians in Australia (The Indian Express, 2010). ‘The people crunch: Global migration and the downturn’, 2009), making some potential migrants act more conser- vatively (Parsons, Tabor, & Fischer, 2012). 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International Migration Decision-Making and Destination Selection Among Skilled Migrants

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International Migration Decision-Making and Destination Selection Among Skilled Migrants Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward Centre for Applied Cross-Cultural Research, School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand his research explored how skilled, self-selected migrants make a decision to leave their country of origin and choose a destination. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 20 pre-departure and 26 post-arrival migrants to New Zealand from the United Kingdom/Ireland, India and South Africa. A thematic analysis was conducted separately for each country’s data. For these migrants, the decision process contained three major decisions: whether, where and when to go. Regarding the question of whether to go, key factors were both intrapersonal and social. New Zealand was selected as a destination of choice due to quality of life, safety, environment, cultural similarity, job opportunities and the perception that migrants were wanted. On the question of when to go, the decision process was a negotiation between partners, and often extended family, which occurred over a long period of time. Keywords: global careers, mobility, expatriation, self-initiated expatriation Since about 3.2% of the world’s population lives out- focused and less family centred are more likely to want to side of their country of birth, amounting to about 232 move (Boneva & Frieze, 2001; Boneva et al., 1998;Boneva, million people, the phenomenon of international mi- Frieze, Ferligoj, Pauknerova, & Orgocka, 1997; Frieze et al., gration is clearly an important aspect of modern life 2004; Frieze, Hansen, & Boneva, 2006; Gibson & McKen- (United Nations, 2013). The majority of research into in- zie, 2011). Yet migration desires are both influenced by and ternational migration decision-making has studied peo- influence the social context within which the person exists. ple coming from less developed countries to more de- veloped countries; for example, Philippines–U.S. migra- Social Context in Migration tion, Nuie–New Zealand migration, and West African– In their study of Asian migrants to New Zealand, Ho and Netherlands migration (Connell, 2008;DeJong, Root, Bedford (2008) emphasised the importance of viewing Gardner, Fawcett, & Abad, 1986;Hamer, 2008). Studies of migration as a multigenerational, multinational process, people leaving first world countries are much more rare as family members often entered and left New Zealand (Benson & O’Reilly, 2009; Dashefsky, DeAmicis, Laser- to find work. This is supported by research on migra- witz, & Tabory, 1992;Stone &Stubbs, 2007;Tabor &Mil- tion networks (also termed chain migration), which views font, 2011; van Dalen & Henkens, 2007). To understand social networks in the destination as facilitators for the how the process of migration decision-making works, move (Choldin, 1973; Fawcett, 1989; Massey, Alarcon, researchers need to consider a wide range of migration Durand, & Gonsalez, 1987). Clearly, there is a social fabric streams. But what do we know of this complex and im- within which the migration decision-making process oc- portant decision that so many people are making? curs. To understand decision-making in a social context Previous studies have indicated that the process requires looking beyond the psychological research that of migration begins well before departure (Jasinskaja- focusses on the individual and into the research on the Lahti & Yijal ¨ a, ¨ 2011; Tabor & Milfont, 2011; Tartakovsky, family as a unit (Chant & Radcliffe, 1992). 2012;Yijal ¨ a ¨ & Jasinskaja-Lahti, 2010). Researchers have Demographers and economists have long consid- repeatedly linked intrapersonal factors to migration de- ered households as the base unit of migration studies cisions (Frieze & Li, 2010), meaning that the decision (Graves & Linneman, 1979;Konseiga, 2007; Mincer, 1978; essentially starts within the personality of the decision- Stark & Taylor, 1989), but relatively little work has been maker. People who are more assertive, patient, work- done on how these households negotiate the international Address for correspondence: Aidan S. Tabor, Centre for Applied Cross-Cultural Research, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] 28 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY, Volume 9, Issue 1 pp. 28–41. The Author(s) 2015. doi 10.1017/prp.2015.3 International Migration Decision-Making migration decision, with studies of internal migra- Overall, decision-making about migration appears to tion being more common (de Haas & Fokkema, 2010; be influenced by these kinds of social networks, as contacts King & Skeldon, 2010; Le, Tissington, & Budhwar, 2010; abroad can provide support to the pre-departure migrant Rabe, 2011;Tsegai, 2007). The problem is that household (Adelman, 1988;Gubhaju &DeJong, 2009;Haug, 2008; theories of migration consider a household to be com- Ryan, 2008; van Dalen & Henkens, 2007). In a study of posed of actors with equal power and agreed aims, though North Americans moving to Israel, personal contacts in this is quite often not the case, especially in cultures where the destination were a major source of informational social women have less power than men in the family decision- support during the decision-making process (Amit & Riss, making (de Haas & Fokkema, 2010;Gubhaju &DeJong, 2007). Even interactions with others via online forums can 2009;Hoang, 2011; Stecklov, Carletto, Azzarri, & Davis, be a major source of informational support and encour- 2010). agement for the move (Tabor & Milfont, 2013). What is In addition, research has also shown that part- unclear is the extent to which migration networks influ- ners can have differing goals in the migration process ence the choice of destination for a potential migrant, par- (Gubhaju & De Jong, 2009; Pedraza, 1991) and that con- ticularly those who are highly skilled and have the option sensus building is often done through discussion (Adams, of multiple destinations. 2004; De Jong, Warland, & Root, 1998). Not only are couples involved in the decision, but also others, such Reasons for International Moves as extended family, children and friends, can have in- fluence in the decision-making process (Adams, 2004). Economic theories suggest the reasons are purely finan- Howfamilyisdefinedisakeyaspectofthistypeofre- cial (Boyle, 2009), but research from New Zealand has search. Though individualists tend to see family as pri- already found ample evidence for non-financial aspects, marily being the nuclear family (parents and their mi- such as environment, as motivation for migrants (Depart- nor children), collectivists are more inclusive of grand- ment of Labour, 2009). The key reasons that migrants parents, adult siblings, cousins, aunts and uncles in their choose to leave their country of origin are recognised thinking (Georgas et al., 2001). As described in Adams’ as being economic, political, cultural, family, and career (2004) research, the role of these extended family mem- factors (Carr, Inkson, & Thorn, 2005). Many studies of bers in the migration decision is also important. Similarly, migration decision-making have focused on these rea- Mulder (2007) argued that family context is critical to mi- sons for the move, usually categorising them as push/pull gration decisions even in individualist countries. British or macro/micro factors (Anas & Wickremasinghe, 2010; pre-departure migrants to New Zealand reported a drop Bushin, 2009; De Jong & Gardner, 1981;Haug, 2008;Kon- in levels of social support from extended family when they tuly, Smith, & Heaton, 1995; Schoorl et al., 2000). Push informed the family of the planned move (Tabor & Mil- and pull factors respectively focus on evaluations of cer- font, 2012). But nowhere is the extended family likely tain characteristics in the source and destination coun- to be as influential as in collectivist cultures, as evi- tries (e.g., crime). As an example of the importance of denced by the continuing strong relationships, both fi- pull factors, results of a longitudinal survey showed that nancial and social, of migrants from countries such as the main reasons reported for selecting New Zealand as Vietnam (Thai, 2012). This is also demonstrated in Indian a destination were: relaxed pace of life/lifestyle (44%), rural–urban internal migration, which has been charac- climate or clean green environment (40%), and a better terised as family decision-making, wherein the head of future for children (39%; Department of Labour, 2009). the household (the eldest male) makes the decision about But there was also some variability in reasons reported by which family members are to migrate (Bhattacharyya, migration stream. For example, migrants from the United 1985). Kingdom/Ireland were most likely to give ‘relaxed pace of Massey’s work on the pattern of Mexico–U.S. immigra- life’ and ‘climate/clean green environment’ as their rea- tion sheds light on the importance of other social networks sons. that extend beyond family boundaries, including friend- As mentioned above, social context, and in particu- ship and community ties (Massey, 1999; Massey et al., lar, contacts at the destination can also function as pull 1987). Scholars have recognised that having connections factors. In the year to February 2015, more than 47,000 in a destination facilitates the transition between coun- people arrived in New Zealand on residency or work visas try of origin and destination, particularly in areas such as (Statistics New Zealand, 2015). What were the reasons that employment and housing (Boyd, 1989; Castles & Miller, drew them here? Findings from the New Zealand gov- 2003; MacDonald & MacDonald, 1964). These social net- ernment’s Immigration Survey Monitoring Programme, works are composed of both kin and friendship connec- which tracked responses from 8,000 migrants from the tions and tend to become self-sustaining over time (de skilled, family and work visa stream, reported that just over Haas, 2010). Similarly, a panel study of migration into the a third came to New Zealand to be with family, partner European Union found that cultural and historic ties, as or friends (Ministry of Business Innovation & Employ- well as social networks, were strongly linked to destination ment, 2012). This migration stream is a mixed category (Pedersen, Pytlikova, & Smith, 2008). that could include chain migration, trailing spouses, those JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 29 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward with New Zealand partners, as well as family reunification. options of destinations, how do they select a country to In effect, it is so broad that it reveals relatively little about move to? what specific motivations are driving inward migration. However, it was also reported that 13% of migrants gave Overview relaxed pace of life, and 11% listed environment/landscape as their main reason for coming to New Zealand. Ability What can make a person move from just thinking about to get a good job was also listed by 11% of the migrants. migrating to actually going? When many possible destina- Thus, numerous factors have been identified as reasons tions offer similar benefits, how do migrants choose New to move, but having reasons is not the same as acting on Zealand to move to? Thus far, research has rarely ventured those reasons. into the pre-departure period to explore the process of There is a lack of clarity around how people shift from decision-making among international migrants, particu- wanting to move internationally to actually doing so. Af- larly using a qualitative methodology. Even more rare are ter conducting a nationally representative 5-year longitu- studies that consider destination selection among skilled dinal study of Dutch nationals with intentions to move migrants who have the most choices about where to set- internationally, van Dalen and Henkens (2012)observed tle. In sum, the purpose of this research is to (a) explore that ‘moving from intentions to behaviour is largely unex- how people make a decision to leave their country of ori- plained’ (p. 11). Previous studies have highlighted that the gin, and (b) investigate how they select a destination. To pre-departure period can be long and tedious (Jasinskaja- accomplish this, we conducted a qualitative study using Lahti & Yijal ¨ a, ¨ 2011; Tabor & Milfont, 2011). Migration thematic analysis to identify similarities and differences between migrants to New Zealand. decision-making has been described as a series of deci- sions, rather than a once and done decision that char- acterises much of the literature on decision-making (De Methods Jong, 1999;Sly &Wrigley, 1986). Thus, our first research Sample question is howdopeoplemakeadecision to leavetheir country of origin? Inclusion criteria followed two steps. Countries were first selected for inclusion based on number of visa approvals, with the top five source countries for skilled/business ap- Destination Selection plications approved in 2009 ranked from highest to lowest: Destination selection usually falls within the realm of United Kingdom, South Africa, Philippines, China, India tourism studies (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;Crompton, (Department of Labour, 2010). In addition, economic di- 1992; Crompton & Ankomah, 1993). It is also critically versity was considered as it is an important consideration important, yet largely ignored, in international migration in economic theories of migration decision-making. The research (Roseman, 1983). Part of the migration choice United Kingdom/Ireland was selected for high wages and is the elimination of what is potentially a long list of al- South Africa for similar wages to New Zealand, and India ternative countries. New Zealand sees itself as competing as a low-wage sending country (Bureau of Labor Statistics, for skilled migrants (Hawthorne, 2011;Ho, 2001), but the 2012a, 2012b; International Labour Organization, 2013). extent to which a potential migrant considers multiple The United Kingdom and Ireland are combined in all Im- countries as destinations before selecting New Zealand is migration New Zealand statistics, so these countries were as yet unexplored. Certainly, skilled migrants have choices considered as a single group in this study, though they are in destinations, as their educational and professional back- separate nations. ground gives them the access to legally work in a variety Following ethical approval granted by the School of of countries. Psychology Human Ethics Committee, interview partici- Even so, there are external limitations that are a factor pants were sought from online forums for migrants to New in destination selection, such as visa requirements, health Zealand, blogs, and through snowball sampling. Snow- requirements and financial resources. It is important to ball sampling was particularly successful for the South recognise that even though a destination is open to ac- African sample, but the posting of a request for partic- cepting migrants, they may be highly selective in whom ipants in online forums for migrants to New Zealand they allow to enter. The United States is perhaps the most garnered more than the required number of participants restrictive, but Canada, Australia and New Zealand all use from all countries. In total, 20 pre-departure (43.5%) and selection criteria based on skills, education, and character 26 post-arrival migrants were included in the study. Fif- (Hawthorne, 2011). It is for this reason that the present teen participants were originally from South Africa, 15 study focuses on skilled migration, rather than family re- from India, and 16 from the United Kingdom/Ireland. Of unification or refugee movement, because skilled migrants the pre-departure sample, the time to departure was ex- have the most choices in the migration decision-making tremely variable: people intended to move to New Zealand process. However, even within this group, we recognise as early as one month from the date of the interview to that choice does exist only within the boundaries created years later. Of those already living in New Zealand, the by policy and personal circumstance. Still, for those with mean time since arrival was 3.5 years (SD = 35 months, 30 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making range 6 months to 13 years). Seventy-five per cent had independently of the overall themes of the data. Data were been in the country less than 5 years. analysed according to steps outlined by Braun and Clarke There were 26 women (56.6%) and 20 men inter- (2006). Beyond the recommendations from Braun and viewed. The mean age of the total sample was 38.81 Clarke, additional techniques were used both in the de- (SD = 8.3, range 27 to 61). Mean family size was 3.1 velopment and verification of the themes. Though the (SD = 1.6, range 1 to 6). Eighty per cent of the sample analysis of qualitative research is normally conducted be- was in a committed relationship, and most couples were hind closed doors, in what the community under study in heterosexual relationships. The majority (82.6%) held might view as a mystical process, Morse, Barrett, Mayan, a bachelor’s degree or higher. Forty-four per cent had vis- Olson, and Spiers (2002) argue for including additional ited New Zealand prior to their move. Though it was more perspectives as a constructive (during the process) versus common for the UK/Irish and Indian sample, a total of evaluative (post hoc) approach, as a means to increasing 58.7% had lived outside of their country of origin pre- reliability and validity in qualitative research. Therefore, a viously. At the time of the interview, 76% intended to second coder assisted with both the refinement of the ini- remain permanently in New Zealand. The skilled migrant tial themes in the South African part of the study, which category visa was the most common (82.6%), though ar- was the first to be analysed, and to confirm themes in rival with student, work, and business visas were also rep- the India and UK/Irish parts of the study. Apart from resented. Career fields included education, medicine, IT, this formal second coder, the initial themes were also dis- sports, engineering, and hospitality. The Indian sample cussed with the co-authors to clarify and arrive at the final was overwhelmingly IT focused. themes. By increasing collaboration and auditing during the analysis, the coherence in the interpretation of the data is correspondingly increased (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, Procedures 2009). All interviews were conducted between July and Octo- Another technique we used in the development and ber 2011. Interviews were conducted using videoconfer- verification of the themes was Miles and Huberman’s encing on Skype, or over the telephone, depending on (1994) tactic for testing or confirming findings: getting the physical location and preference of the participants. feedback from participants and other community mem- All interviews were digitally audio-recorded and then bers. This is similar to Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (1998) transcribed. The mean interview time was 40 minutes member checks, whereby people from the community un- (SD = 20 minutes, range10minutes to 1hour17minutes), der study give feedback on conclusions. They perceive this plus non-recorded debriefing. The study as a whole had as the single most important check of credibility that a 24 hours and 44 minutes of recorded data in the corpus. researcher can utilise. Thus, a final report of findings was All names listed are pseudonyms, chosen from popular prepared, corresponding to the respective results sections baby names in the respective country. for each country, and sent out to participants from the Interviews began with an introduction that included country as well as other community members who did a brief explanation of the first author’s own background not participate in the study, but who were gathered from as a migrant to New Zealand, to acknowledge that the personal networks or from contacts made during the in- researcher’s experience, assumptions, values and cultural terview process. All countries had more people offer to background are part of the reflexive experience of con- be interviewed than space allowed, and thus several of ducting qualitative research (Gearing, 2004;Shaw, 2010; these people were contacted to give community feedback. Tufford & Newman, 2012). The interview schedule had 10 All were invited to comment and to disagree. Overall, the questions, including ‘Tell me the story of how you came comments confirmed the findings, and where they di- to New Zealand’ (post arrival) or ‘Tell me how you started verged, usually by adding more material or correcting an thinking about moving to New Zealand’ (pre-departure). error such as spelling, have been incorporated into the At the end of each interview, participants were debriefed findings. and given the chance to ask questions. Participants were In the initial round of open coding (highlighting any compensated for their time with a food (supermarket relevant portions of text and assigning them a code) and vouchers for those within New Zealand) or book voucher the second round of closed coding (identifying any text (Amazon.com for pre-departure participants). After the that fits within the identified codes), 110 codes were iden- interviews were transcribed, participants were offered the tified in the South African dataset, 70 for UK/Ireland, chance to read and comment on their transcripts, and 17% and 46 for India. Initially, a total of 1,868 extracts were of participants did so. These comments were added to the coded. After refining the themes to check for internal ho- corpus before analysis. mogeneity and external heterogeneity, the final dataset in- cluded 1,564 coded extracts in 43 themes and subthemes. Data Analysis As shown in Table 1, there was substantial overlap between themes and subthemes between the countries. Themes re- Nvivo 9 was used for tracking each code and theme, as well lating to settlement, degree to which expectations were as mapping the themes. Each country was analysed sepa- rately to allow the country’s codes and themes to emerge met, and the decision to onward or return migrate were JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 31 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward Table 1 Themes and Subthemes for South African, Indian and UK/Irish Samples N (interviews) N (extracts) % Country dataset South Africa Quality of life 13 69 10.1 Decision-making 12 43 6.2 Catalyst 11 22 3.2 Inhibitors/promoters 12 38 5.5 Technology 12 24 3.5 Intrapersonal factors 13 61 8.9 Social Factors 13 147 21.5 Settlement 13 80 11.7 Country comparison 1 1 1 Perceptions of South Africa 13 55 8.1 Perceptions of New Zealand 13 87 12.7 Other countries considered 12 41 6 Cultural similarities 8 15 2.1 United Kingdom/Ireland Decision-making 14 54 12.4 Couples decision-making 10 33 7.6 Micro factors 8 18 4.2 Adventure/Risk 7 14 3.2 Work 14 35 8 Social factors 11 19 4.4 Extended Family 12 16 3.7 Connections in New Zealand 10 14 3.2 Children 8 19 4.4 Macro factors 0 0 0 Environment 15 54 12.4 Lifestyle 13 41 9.5 Friendliness 14 22 5.1 Cultural similarity 12 20 4.6 Crime/terrorism 6 12 2.8 Cost of living 6 7 1.6 Settlement 15 55 12.7 India Opportunity 12 51 11 Work 13 87 19 Lifestyle 9 37 8 Social aspects of migration 12 33 7 Extended family 11 29 6 Partners decision-making 8 21 5 Cultural norms 10 21 5 Destinations 11 49 11 Return or onward migration 12 30 7 New Zealand 11 21 5 Environment 11 32 7 Destination in New Zealand 9 11 2 Settlement 10 26 6 identified, but not reported in the present study due to on the themes and subthemes that were present within relevance to the research questions. each country’s data, including: quality of life, opportunity (career, financial and educational reasons), environment, safety, welcome, and social connections. Finally, to de- Results scribe how the decision of when to go was managed by the Based on the literature reviewed above, we expected to participants, we will discuss the concept of a catalyst and find that migrants would discuss their decision of whether the overall length of the decision process. Within each of to migrate and where to migrate. We did not expect the these sections, differences between countries will also be extent to which the timing of the decision, or when to highlighted. migrate, would be of critical importance. In the following section, we will focus on the similarities between coun- Whether to Migrate tries as they relate to this three-part process. This will address key players in the decision of whether to migrate For nearly all of the migrants interviewed, the initial step (an individual, a couple, the extended family). In the ques- in the decision process was to assess whether or not to tion of selecting among destinations, we will concentrate leave their country of origin. This entailed a number of 32 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making factors, the most central of which were intrapersonal, but these negative feelings prior to the move made settling social factors, such as the opinion of intimate partners and difficult. Not all families that differed in initial migration extended family members, were also key in the decision. desire remained so polarised. Some trailing spouses were quickly convinced of the benefits of the move and became Intrapersonal factors. Several participants highlighted enthusiastic supporters of the plan. how risky the migration choice was, particularly for those who had not visited New Zealand or did not have a Extendedfamilies. The issue of extended family members’ job waiting for them. Brandon compared himself to his roles in the migration decision was complex and varied by brother, who remained in the United Kingdom: ‘We are family as well as country. For some couples, like Kate and extremely different personality wise. I’m not sure he would Sam, the extended families were divided: ‘We’ve got my even take that kind of risk, because it’s quite a big leap that family supporting us and his saying no.’ For Andries, ex- we are taking, to just go without a job and just go for it. tended family in South Africa were having an influence on But I’m not sure my brother would ever do that. We are the timing of the move: ‘With my parents, they’re getting very, very different in that respect.’ pretty old now so . . . that for me is probably the major thing holding me back.’ Kate, a South African, is a novelty-seeker: ‘I see myself as an adventurer, I love the challenge, I like to try new Indian families had the most central role for extended things.’ This is in contrast to her partner, Sam, who is family members. For most of the Indian migrants, parents somewhat risk-averse: ‘I definitely see it as an unknown, were a very important part of the decision-making pro- and I’m not sure if things are going to work out. You cess itself. Durva, who is unmarried, has been encouraged know, I’m only making sure that things are going to be by her parents: ‘They are really supportive and they are 100% and work out it’s fine, but this is very risky as far as helping me find my way over.’ Geeta described how her I’m concerned and you don’t know what’s going to happen father encouraged her to support her husband’s plans to when you get there, how things are going to pan out.’ move abroad, thereby convincing her to go. Intimate partners. There were many gradations of desire I was a bit upset when he said we are going to immigrate and to migrate that were expressed by the two partners. Some we are going to New Zealand.. . . I said we are happy here, why couples were in agreement on the move nearly from the do we want to move? So when I was talking to my parents, my father was the one who insisted I encourage my husband . . . start. Grace, a South African educator, and her partner what my father said was, ‘Look if he wants to do something you ‘were absolutely in it together’. But for many of the other do it now when your kids are young, when we are here to help couples from all the countries, there was a driver who had youifyou need anyhelp...thisisthe best time to do it,to a stronger to desire to migrate than their trailing partner. explore new ideas and if you think you are not settled if you These drivers convinced their partners, as Brandon’s story don’t like there you can always come back.’. . . And because of illustrated: the promising words I said to my husband, okay let’s go. We have been together for four years and we have been talking Her narrative illustrated the collective nature of the mi- about it a lot and we do have long conversations about it and gration decision for Indian migrants, with a much greater because it’s obviously not just about making me happy, it’s about role for extended family members than was evident in her as well. So we have got to make sure that it’s the right move British or South African families. for her also and if she ever said that she didn’t want to go, she was adamant that she changed her mind that we would still consider Where to Migrate that seriously and I would have to give up on the New Zealand dream, but I guess it works for both of us at the moment. Nearly all participants considered where they would move to as the second major decision in the process. The strate- Trailing spouses, who are initially lower in the desire gies they employed were largely conjunctive, considering to move, often influenced the timing of the migration. elements such as language, safety and job opportunities as Logan, a South African engineer, described the timing of a way to eliminate possible destinations. his move: ‘I think it was my idea in the beginning and quite a while back, about 10 years ago, I wanted to leave Quality of life. Theconstructsofpaceoflife, qualityoflife, already and my partner didn’t think so . . . she was to- work/life balance and lifestyle were very much entwined. tally against immigration at first, but it was her idea the ‘The city itself, the way everything worked, the quality of second time round and of course mine as well.’ These life there. I kept on saying that all the time there, the quality differences of migration desire complicate the process, of life,’ Reece, a self-employed South African, said of his engendering lengthy negotiations for most families, and trip to New Zealand. ‘Peace of mind is a major thing for emotional costs for both partners. Hannah moved to New me, even more than money,’ explained Lokajit. Jihan, an Zealand because her partner wanted to, but the process IT professional from Tamil Nadu, said that ‘quality of life’ of leaving the United Kingdom was extremely emotional was his top reason for leaving. Lifestyle was one of Rishi’s forher:‘Iwasn’treallyhappy at all...Iwasreallyde- main reasons: ‘In India, even if you make a lot of money pressed. No, I found it really difficult.’ Hannah was not you cannot guarantee a certain lifestyle. So I thought of unique in the painful experience of migrating to a coun- moving to a Western country, for a better lifestyle, for my try that she was not at all pleased to be moving to, and kid.’ JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 33 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward In sum, there was a strong desire to ‘downshift’ and was perceived as having a Goldilocks climate, not too hot have a less hurried life. Several participants brought up and not too cold. work–life balance as a goal. Lokajit’s friend moved to New Accessibility of nature and cleanliness were also impor- Zealand before him, and told him about the difference in tant environmental attractions. On his first visit, Tyler, a work–lifebalance:‘He wouldjusttellusabout the work South African, was awed by ‘the place itself, the beauty of culture, it’s only working like 8 or 9 hours a day, and we New Zealand, that was the first feeling, like amazing sight. used to work 10 or 12 hours a day in India.’ Naadir, an IT Because you see photographs and stuff but you don’t re- professional from Kerala, was of the opinion that ‘money, alise what it is or what it looks like before you get here. It it doesn’t really compensate for the lack of work/life bal- was just amazing.’ Andries also noted the natural environ- ance’. Even in the United Kingdom, work and commuting ment: ‘It’s close to mountains, you’re close to the sea, the consumes life. Ben expressed his frustration with lack of outdoors, which for me is important.’ Kumari’s husband, time for leisure activities: ‘In the UK [it] is like you are up who moved to New Zealand before her, described it for early, you go to work, come home and that’s about it.’ her: ‘He told me that pollution is not a problem, very clean roadsand notlotsoftraffic...and averybeautiful place.’ Safety. ‘Because the crime is not only theft, it is violence. Quite often it will be more than just your things that are Cultural similarity. When potential migrants consider taken,’ warned Sam, a South African engineer and father. destination countries, one of the first criteria they use Every South African participant discussed safety as pivotal is cultural similarity, starting with language. ‘I was con- to the move. Though India has its own terrorism and crime sidering moving to English speaking countries because I threats, this did not come up in the interviews. Crime was didn’t want to learn a new language for moving to a new an issue for UK participants, including Harry: ‘It was right country. So I was thinking of moving to either Canada, on our doorstep, the crime . . . just the perception really, UK, Australia or New Zealand,’ said Rishi. When migrants just seems to be getting worse.’ are attempting to eliminate destination options, language is a common and relatively straightforward method. Opportunity. Indian participants stated that jobs, usu- Not just culturally similar, New Zealand is reminiscent ally for both partners, were an important factor in both of an ideal Britain that does not exist anymore. ‘It’s kind the ability to move abroad and in the appeal of moving of like England used to be when I was growing up,’ said abroad. Rishi, a young father from Tamil Nadu said that Ben. Harry described New Zealand as: ‘. . . almost like it to develop a career, ‘the IT professional in India has got used to be here 35, 40 years ago in the UK. So it’s got to be to go abroad’. For several of the participants, part of the abetterplace.’ appeal of working overseas was to gain a higher salary. Sport was another important aspect of culture that Durva clarified her reasons for the move: ‘I could prob- helped attract the attention of the migrants. Rugby has ably earn a lot more outside of India, just think of the proven that it is more than just a sport, it is a way to exchange rate.’ Others strongly denied salary or money change lives, as illustrated by Tyler’s comment: ‘I suppose was motivating their move. Rishi said: ‘I’m having a good it started with the rugby of course. You’ve heard of the life in India. We have plenty of money here.’ Dakshi, an rugby. For me, either Australia or New Zealand, because engineer from Tamil Nadu, explained how his priorities their cultures are the same as South Africa. We love the had changed over time: ‘When I moved initially [to the same things, we do the same stuff and that’s why I didn’t United States], yes, money was the main reason and then consider any other country.’ Cricket was also mentioned, after gaining so many years of experience . . . the money particularly by Indian migrants. you can earn in the States or anywhere abroad, you can almost get the same amount of money these days in India.’ Welcome. ‘Initially I was looking for countries that were It was clear that money was one factor among many that welcoming migrants,’ explained Jihan. Naadir selected his influenced the decision to move. For British and South destination the same way: ‘New Zealand seemed more African migrants, having the opportunity for a job was migrant-friendly.’ The receptivity of the destination is ex- a factor that was considered in the decision, but career pressed in both the availability of visas and the reception development was often a secondary factor. that migrants receive in the country. Half of the Indian par- Environment. Climate is one of the leading ways that mi- ticipants specifically mentioned racism as having an im- grants eliminated options from their potential list of des- pact on their decision-making. Australia’s violence against tinations. For Georgia’s family, like many of the others Indian migrants has clearly made some people stay away. from the United Kingdom, ‘the cold crossed off Canada’. ‘We thought of going to Australia but . . . because it was ‘Australia, no, just because it’s too hot for us. We don’t a time that kind of racist incidents were going on. Indi- like the heat very much,’ said Gwyn, another UK migrant. ans had gotten beaten up and all that stuff was going on Indian migrants also were concerned with the climate. in Australia,’ Dakshi explained. The perception that New Farzana said, ‘I heard about New Zealand, we heard about Zealand wants migrants was a crucial aspect of its selec- the climatic conditions, it was very good because, we both tion as a destination. Availability of visas, the clarity of the can’t stay in a very hot climate.’ In contrast to Australia’s Immigration New Zealand website and the expectation of sweltering heat and Canada’s snowy winters, New Zealand a friendly host population were all part of the judgment. 34 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making Social connections. Migrants’ initial idea to come to New had made the decision a month prior to the interview and Zealand, rather than another country, very often came her ticket for departure was only 4 weeks away. Ben, a UK from a social connection to the country. Having friends in teacher, had desired an international move for years: ‘It’s New Zealand influenced Kumari’s husband: been my mission since I went to Australia when I was 16 to move over that side of the world.’ Timing can also be He had his friends in New Zealand. That’s why he wanted to influenced by completely external factors such as health, come there, they are friends from his childhood. They told him jobs, schooling and visas, as Sam, who is still in South that it’s a very nice country, very beautiful place and so many Africa, explained: ‘So it was basically 2008 that we decided tourists visit there and they play the same sports, so that’s why he was really excited to go there. to try and which was when the global economic doom hit.’ Chain migration was a factor for many of the migrants, particularly those from South Africa and the United Discussion Kingdom who had extended family members already liv- The purpose of this research was to explore how people ing in New Zealand, though for most, the connections make a decision to leave their country of origin and how were distant (i.e., great-uncle, second cousins). In the they select New Zealand as a destination. For the South Indian sample, very few had family members living in African, Indian and British migrants, the decision pro- New Zealand, but many had friends from their schooling. cess was composed of three distinct parts. By and large, Reece, a pre-departure South African, said: ‘We have very people first made the decision of whether, then where to good friends there.. . .We grew up together; we used to migrate, and finally when to go. Nearly all participants race carts and do all kinds of crazy things. They immi- had already exhibited long-term sustained effort to realise grated 14 years ago. We’ve always stayed in touch.’ Tegan, their migration plans; all perceived it as having a level of a South African businesswoman, has a pre-formed social uncertainty and risk (though there were individual differ- network that creates a ‘support structure because you’ve ences in comfort level with the risk), and all negotiated got all these people you know’. the decision with partners and/or close family members. The selection criterion for destinations was also remark- When to Migrate ably similar. Clearly, there is a consistent message that After the decision of where to settle was made, migrants New Zealand sells, as those who come here are essentially usually focused on selecting the right time to go. This drawn to the same features (e.g., quality of life, environ- could be a drawn-out process, as the negotiation between ment, feeling welcome). family members was often lengthy. Thus, the process was first for there to be interest, from The catalyst. ‘I think the final straw was when we were at least one partner, followed by investigations of possible burgled when my son and myself were alone in the house destinations. Self-selected migration stems from intraper- and they were in the house while we were sleeping. That sonal factors, such as the desire for adventure and novelty. was the final straw for me,’ said Tegan. The catalyst theme For some migrants, particularly in the case of South Africa, relates to the events that crystallised the decision from an external events were conceptualised as a tipping point or amorphous desire to leave into action to make that desire last straw, as has been found previously (Du Toit, 2003; a reality. Not all catalysts related to violence or negative Visser, 2007). Yet these external events, or catalysts, do events. Carmen, a South African computer specialist, re- not cause a move. A catalyst is an external influence that cently fell in love with a New Zealander: the migrant perceives as spurring action, but the event in and of itself would not have the same impact if the New Zealand jumped to the top of my list, I may not have thought person was not already considering a move. The catalyst about New Zealand, I may have gone to Australia before I met interacts with an existing situation to move the person him, but now after having learned about New Zealand and all from a state of considering moving, into acting on their that cool stuff you can do there. I’m thinking why didn’t I think aboutitbefore? desire. If a person reacts to a catalyst, inhibitors and promot- Length of the decision process. Ultimately, the migration ers become important in the decision of whether or not decision occurs within the context of time, which may to migrate to a certain destination. Triandis (1977) used span months or years. When asked at what point he started the term facilitating factors to describe a similar concept. considering migration, Eka, an engineer from Maharash- Some factors can make the move easier, such as a career tra explained: that is highly portable or a job opportunity in the desti- The roots go way back at the time when I was a child, when I nation country. These factors alone do not make people used to think what it would be like, I used to wonder what it migrate, but they grease the wheels to make the transition would be like to live in a different country. Although I had no from simply wanting to go, to actually leaving, easier. In- background and no one to guide me in that, I still fancied those hibiting factors include having a trailing spouse who does types of parts [more developed countries]. not want to move, health issues, having a less supportive Some families related that they had been considering mi- extended family, and having fewer career options. If a per- gration for more than 10 years, whereas one participant son is not predisposed to migrate, facilitating influences JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY 35 Aidan S. Tabor, Taciano L. Milfont, and Colleen Ward (e.g., availability of visas, job opportunities) have little one person in the study was migrating to New Zealand effect. purely because they had a job offer; all others were seek- ing to move to New Zealand and therefore looked for A negotiated decision. This research has supported pre- a job before or after arrival. This concept of work as a vious findings on how families make migration decisions way to facilitate a desired move was also found in in- together (Adams, 2004), and expanded the understand- ternal migration studies in the United Kingdom (Boyle, ing of the role of extended families in the decision. All of Halfacree, & Robinson, 1998). the countries had themes that included the issue of how If a single idea can encapsulate what all of these mi- differences in migration desire were negotiated between grants are seeking, it is an improvement in quality of life. partners. Quality of life, in the form of lifestyle, pace of life and Among all nationalities, there were examples of trailing work–life balance was a prominent theme for all three spouses agreeing to a move that was against their own countries. Inglehart (1997) found that in a society that wishes, purely to make their partner happy, or because had reached a high level of material wealth, people tend to they felt the children would be better off. This has also start focusing more on immaterial aspects, such as qual- been noted in German migrants to New Zealand (Burgelt, ¨ ity of life. In previous research, lifestyle migration had Morgan, & Pernice, 2008). Drivers in this study discussed a quality similar to retirement migration, a seeking of ‘self-induced’ pressure to make the move a success, which leisure pursued by those who could afford not to work is similar to previous findings (Tabor & Milfont, 2012). (Benson & O’Reilly, 2009). Yet the migrants in the present Rubin (2013) found that men were more likely to be the study, who very often did give lifestyle as a reason for their driving force in decisions to migrate to Australia. In this move, were clearly planning to work upon arrival. One In- study, many of the women were more enthusiastic about dian participant referred to seeking ‘a more balanced life’ the move than their partner, though, as with male trailing and this is a very good description of what these lifestyle spouses, many began in a less receptive state to the move. migrants were searching for. A satisfying career, but bal- Although trailing spouses have been discussed extensively anced with time for leisure and access to nature, were the in the academic literature (Adams, 2004; Bielby & Bielby, key qualities that the migrants pursued. 1992;Harvey, 1998; Tabor & Milfont, 2012), this study found that the concept of a trailing spouse should be less categorical and more situational. This fluidity in migration Same, Same But Different: How Migrants Select a Destination desire is an important consideration for further research. Migrants did not consider an exhaustive list of every pos- sible destination country. Most started from a short list of Social networks. Though some of the UK and South possibilities, and this list was influenced by family, friends African migrants had social networks through kinship ties and media. Attractive aspects that led to the selection of in New Zealand, it was clear that this was not the reason for the move. Unlike research with other migrant groups New Zealand as the destination included welcome, cul- (Massey, 2004; Palloni et al., 2001), there was minimal tural similarity and environment. expectation that social capital would increase the chances Migrants wanted. New Zealand was viewed as hospitable of finding jobs or housing. It may be that skilled migrants to migrants, which has been supported by previous re- have less need of these support systems than do unskilled search (Ward & Masgoret, 2008;Ward, Masgoret,& migrants who arrive at their destination with very limited Vauclair, 2011). It was also seen as accessible, in that the financial resources. migration policies were open enough to allow legal entry. The situation of some extended family members being The higher threshold for visas that Australia imposes, and supportive while others were firmly against the move was the complicated system varying by state were seen as in- also very common. The main exception to this was India, dications that Australia has less desire for migrants. The where some participants said that their extended family United States and the United Kingdom also had much members were as important to the decision as the couple more strict policies of entry, and it is this openness that (or individual) themselves. Research with Irish migrants helped create a path of least resistance to New Zealand. has also shown that extended family can have a strong role, particularly in destination selection even in individualistic Cultural similarity. Aspects of culture have previously cultures (Ryan, 2008, 2009). In the Indian sample, not been demonstrated as part of the internal migration pro- all extended family were supportive, particularly of New cess, as Mormons reported that their move to the U.S. Zealand as a destination, instead encouraging migrants to state of Utah was driven by religious as well as family mo- go to places with more social networks to support them tives (Kontuly et al., 1995). The present study went fur- (such as Canada, Australia or the United States). ther, finding that the cultural characteristics of a nation Migration as opportunity. Work was a subtheme for both were key factors in destination selection. Despite many of UK and Indian migrants; however, it was much more the migrants speaking other languages, English language prevalent in the India dataset (19% vs. 8%). In South was the first criterion used by most migrants as a con- Africa, it was one of many intrapersonal factors that facil- junctive strategy, thereby ruling out all potential destina- itated migration, rather than a reason for the move. Only tions where English is not the language of business. More 36 JOURNAL OF PACIFIC RIM PSYCHOLOGY International Migration Decision-Making general cultural similarities, such as sports, were also im- of each country’s part of the study was large by qualitative portant selection criteria for migrants. research standards (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009)but not large enough to draw inferential conclusions, being a Environment. From the perspective of destination selec- small, non-random sample. tion, environment is one of the best-selling features of New Within the New Zealand context, there was a limited Zealand. Though these migrants came from a range of cli- selection of English-speaking sending countries (United mate zones, all viewed the relatively mild New Zealand Kingdom, India and South Africa) included in the sam- climate positively. Migrants had considered but ruled out ple, when the diversity of migrants is vast. This selection Canada because it is too cold and Australia because it is has likely meant that cultural similarity was an impor- too hot. Even Indian migrants sometimes saw Australia tant destination selection criterion, when for many other as too warm, though they were also concerned that they sending countries this may not be a factor. Future stud- might be too cold in New Zealand, and thus favoured ies with participants from non-English speaking countries migration to the northern part of North Island where the are recommended. weather is more tropical. The sentiment that Canada is too Psychology tends to be bound by an individualist ten- cold and Australia is too hot but New Zealand is just right dency: it puts priority on individual decisions while fail- echoes the ‘Goldilocks Effect’ that planetary scientists use ing to appreciate that important real world decisions are to describe ideal climates. essentially collective when the decision-makers are in a Beyond temperature, New Zealand’s scenery and ac- committed relationship, or part of a family that relies on cess to nature were attractions for all nationalities. Pos- parents, grandparents, children and even siblings in the itive evaluations of the environment were very much in decision-making process. The present study included nu- line with research on place attractiveness in the migra- merous stories of how the couples had to reach a decision tion decision (Ewers, 2007; Li, Holm, & Lindgren, 2009; together, and particularly for Indian families, how impor- Niedomysl, 2010). The mild climate, beautiful scenery, ac- tant the role of the extended family was in the decision. cessibility of nature and pollution-free reputation of the Practitioners working with migrant families may benefit country were key draws. from this deeper understanding of what drives migration and the lengthy negotiation process that it entails for many Time in the Migration Decision partners. Additionally, policy-makers should be aware of In the South African dataset there was a clear and immedi- both the decision-making process and how marketing, ate catalyst for the move from almost all the participants, even that aimed at tourists, influences it. Finally, theories whereas for the other countries the process seemed to be must address how the decision to migrate is not only com- a gradual realisation that the time for the move was right, prised of three main choices (whether, where and when) usually because of life stage. For all of the countries, most but also how these are each situated within a cultural and people seemed to be ‘primed’ to move, just waiting for social context. the opportunity to open for them to actually leave. The This study elucidated the decision-making process of timing of the migration itself is not widely discussed in self-selected migrants, raising awareness of how this pro- the research literature; it has been called the forgotten cess can be influenced. Essentially there is a pool of well- dimension (Shotter, 1984), though some studies have ad- qualified migration candidates who are at this moment dressed how migration fits in the lifespan such as the case looking for a destination. Thus, there is no need to con- of retirement migration (Bolzman, Fibbi, & Vial, 2006). vince people to migrate; there is only a need for countries What was clear in the present study was that when to move to highlight how they can satisfy the needs of the migrants, was an important and distinct decision, and one that was and to assure them that they are indeed wanted. often influenced by external factors. Even for those who had a willing partner, migrants spoke about the frustra- tion of changing visa regulations in potential destinations. Endnote The global economic downturn had a strong impact on 1 During 2009–2010 there were more than 100 reported in- international migration flows (Green & Winters, 2010; cidents of attacks against Indians in Australia (The Indian Express, 2010). ‘The people crunch: Global migration and the downturn’, 2009), making some potential migrants act more conser- vatively (Parsons, Tabor, & Fischer, 2012). 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Journal

Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology – SAGE

Published: Jun 1, 2015

Keywords: global careers; mobility; expatriation; self-initiated expatriation

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